• Fluid Statics and Its Applications

• Nature of fluids

• Hydrostatic Equilibrium

• Applications of fluid statics

• Nature of fluids

• A fluid is a substance that does not permanently resist distortion.

• During the change in shape, shear stresses exist, the magnitudes of which depend upon the
viscosity of the fluid and the rate of sliding
 Fluids also can be divided as
Fluids include
• liquid • Incompressible——the density changes
• gas only slightly with moderate changes in
temperature and pressure
• solid particles suspended
in liquid and gas or • Compressible——the changes in density
slurry caused by temperature and pressure are
significant
(Pressure concept : the pressure at any point in the fluid is independent of direction)

Force on static element of the

fluid
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
• There is a vertical column of fluid shown in
Figure p +dp
• Three vertical forces are acting on this volume:
• (1)the force from pressure p acting in an upward
direction , which is pS;
• (2) the force from pressure p+dp acting in a
downward direction , which is (p+dp)S;
• (3)the force of gravity acting downward, which is
gρsdz p
g
Hydrostatic equilibrium
Gauge pressure, absolute pressure and vacuum
• The relationship between gauge pressure and absolute pressure
• P(gauge)=P(absolute)-P(atmosphere)
• The relationship between vacuum and absolute pressure
• P(vacuum)=P(atmosphere)-P(absolute)
• Or P(vacuum)=- P(gauge)
 • Barometric equation

• For an ideal gas , the density and pressure are

related by the equation
pM
• =
RT
pb gM
ln  (Zb  Z a )
pa RT

pb  gM 
or  exp  ( Zb  Z a ) 
pa  RT 

known as the barometric equation.

Hydrostatic equilibrium in a centrifugal field

In a rotating centrifuge a layer of liquid is

thrown outward from the axis of rotation and
is held against the wall by centrifugal force.

The free surface of the liquid takes the shape of a paraboloid of

revolution.
The situation in shown in Fig.

dr

r1
r2 r
The volume element of thickness dr at a
radium r.

dF   rdm2

If ρ is the density of the liquid and b the breadth of

the ring.

dm   2 rbdr
Eliminating dm gives

dF  2b r dr2 2

The change in pressure over the element is the force

exerted by the element of liquid, divided by the area
of the ring.

dF
dp    rdr
2

2 rb
The pressure drop over the entire ring is
r2

p2  p1    2 rdr
r1
Assuming the density is constant and integration gives

 2  (r22  r12 ) (2.8)

p2  p1 
2
Applications of fluid statics
• Manometer (pressure gauge)
The manometer is an important device for measuring pressure
differences.
• U tube manometer (or reverse U tube)
• Inclined manometer
• Differential manometer
U tube manometer
• It is the simplest form of manometer.
A pressure pa is exerted in one arm of U tube and a
pressure pb
in the other.
pa pb
As a result of the difference in
pressure, the meniscus in one
branch of the tube is higher than 4
z
that in the other. ρB m
3
Vertical distance between the Rm
two meniscuses Rm may be 1 2
used to measure the difference
ρA
in pressure.
 • The pressure at the point 1 is

p1  pa  g ( zm  Rm )  B

• The pressure at the point 2 is

p2  pb  gzm  B  gRm  A

• p1 is equal to p2 for the continuous fluid at the

same level, thus

pa  g ( zm  Rm )  B  pb  gzm  B  gRm  A
Simplification of this equation gives
m  A   B）
pa  pb  gR（
Note that this relationship is independent of the
distance zm, and of the dimensions of the tube,
provided that pressure pa and pb are measured in
the same horizontal plane.
If fluid B is a gas, ρB is usually negligible compared
to ρA and may be omitted from Equation
Application of fluid statistics
Continuous gravity decanter

• Over flow lines are so large that frictional

resistance is neglible
• Provided they discharge at the same
pressure that in gas above the liquid in the
vessel
 • A be the density of heavy liquid
•  B be the density of light liquid
• ZA1 depth of the layer of heavy liquid
• ZB depth of the layer of light liquid
• Total depth of the liquid in the vessel is fixed to ZT
is fixed by the position of the overflow
• ZA2 height of the heavy liquid above the vessel floor

Column of heavy liquid in the heavy-liquid overflow leg must balance the
somewhat greater depth of the two liquids in the vessel.
Size of the decanter
• Time required for separation, which in turn depends on the densities of
two liquids and viscosity of the continuous phase
Centrifugal decanter
• If the density difference is too small, force of gravity may be too weak to
separate the liquids in a reasonable time.

Force of gravity can be neglected in

comparison with the much greater
centrifugal force.
• ρA be the density of heavy liquid overflows at radius rA

• ρB be the density of light liquid leaves through ports at radius rB

• Pressure difference in the light liquid between rB and ri must equal that in the heavy liquid rA and ri
Manometers
• Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to
measure the difference in pressure between two points or between a
certain point and the atmosphere.
• For measuring very small gauge pressures of liquids, simple piezometer
tube may be adequate, but for larger gauge pressures, some
modifications of the tube are necessary and this modified tube is known
as manometer. A common type manometer is like a transparent u-tube.
• One of its ends is connected to a pipe or a container having a fluid (A)
whose pressure is to be measured while the other end is open to
atmosphere.
• The lower part of the u-tube contains a liquid immiscible with the fluid A and is of greater
density than that of A. This fluid is called the manometric fluid.

• The pressures at two points P and Q in a horizontal plane within the continuous expanse
of same fluid (the liquid B in this case) must be equal.

• Then equating the pressures at P and Q in terms of the heights of the fluids above those
points, with the aid of the fundamental equation of hydrostatics
A simple manometer to measure gauge pressure A simple manometer measuring vacuum pressure
 • In the similar fashion, a manometer is frequently used to measure the pressure
difference, in course of flow, across a restriction in a horizontal pipe

A manometer measuring pressure differential

 Inclined manometer
• For accurate measurement of small pressure differences by an ordinary u-tube
manometer, it is essential that the ratio m/ w should be close to unity.
• This is not possible if the working fluid is a gas; also having a manometric liquid
of density very close to that of the working liquid and giving at the same time a
well-defined meniscus at the interface is not always possible.
• For this purpose, an inclined tube manometer is used.
• If the transparent tube of a manometer, instead of
being vertical, is set at an angle θ to the horizontal,
then a pressure difference corresponding to a
vertical difference of levels x gives a movement of
the meniscus s = x/sinθ along the slope.
Inverted tube Manometer
• For the measurement of small pressure differences
in liquids, an inverted U-tube manometer is used
• Here the m < w, and the line PQ is taken at the
level of the higher meniscus to equate the
pressures at P and Q from the principle of
hydrostatics
• Micromanometer
• When an additional gauge liquid is used in a U-
tube manometer, a large difference in meniscus
levels may be obtained for a very small pressure
difference.

• where m, w and g are the densities of

working fluid, gauge liquid and
manometric liquid respectively.
•
• An inclined tube manometer measures the gauge pressure ps of a system
S . The reservoir and tube diameters of the manometer are 50 mm and 5
mm respectively. The inclination angle of the tube is 30°. What will be
the percentage error in measuring pS if the reservoir deflection is
neglected.
•
• A typical differential manometer is attached to two sections A and B in a
horizontal pipe through which water is flowing at a steady rate . The
deflection of mercury in the manometer is 0.6 m with the level nearer A
being the lower one as shown in the figure. Calculate the difference in
pressure between Sections A and B. Take the densities of water and
mercury as 1000 kg/m3 and 13570 kg/m3 respectively.
Fluid flow phenomena

• Potential flow: is characterized by an irrotational velocity field. Flow of

such an ideal fluid is called potential flow
1. Neither circulations nor eddies can form with in the stream
2. Friction cannot develop
Potential flow can exist at distances far from a solid boundary
Boundary layer
• Boundary layer is the regions close to the solid boundary where the
effects of viscosity are experienced by the flow.
• In the regions outside the boundary layer, the effect of viscosity is
negligible and the fluid is treated as inviscid.
• So, the boundary layer is a buffer region between the wall below and the
inviscid free-stream above.

Velocity field
One dimensional flow
Velocity gradient and rate of shear
In one dimensional flow the shear force acts
parallel to the plane of the shear
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

m- flow consistency index

n- flow behaviour index

• When n = 1, m equals to m, the model identically

satisfies Newtonian model as a special case.
• When n < 1, the model is valid for pseudoplastic
fluids, such as gelatine, blood, milk etc.
• When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids,
such as sugar in water, aqueous suspension of rice
starch etc.
Turbulence

• Reynolds experiment
• The behaviour of the color band showed that the water was flowing in
parallel straight lines and that the flow was laminar at lower flow rate
• When the flow rate was increased. (critical velocity) was reached at which
the thread of color became wavy and gradually disappeared
• Dye spread uniformly in the form of cross currents and eddies.--
Turbulent flow
• Laminar flow change to turbulent flow is depended on four quantities
Deviating velocities of turbulence

Local velocities analysed by

1. Constant part – time average of the component in the direction of flow of the stream
2. Deviating velocity - instantaneous fluctuation of the component around the mean
Therefore mean square velocity is not zero and is inherently positive and vanishes only when
turbulence doesn ot exist

Statistical Nature of turbulence

1. Three deviating velocity components can be measured-
each as a function of time
2. Values of single deviating velocity can be measured at
different positions over the same time
Eddy viscosity and eddy diffusivity of momentum

Total shear stress

Flow in boundary layers

OL imaginary surface separates the fluid that is directly affected by the plate from
that in which the local velocity is constant and equal to the initial velocity of the
approach fluid
Layer between dashed line and plate constitutes the boundary layer
• A thin rectangular plate having a width w and a height h is located so that
it is normal to a moving stream of fluid as shown in figure. Assume the
drag D, that the fluid exerts on the plate is a function of w and h, the
fluid viscosity and density, μ and ρ, respectively, and the velocity V of the
fluid approaching the plate. Determine a suitable set of pi terms to study
the problem experimentally.
Laminar and turbulent flow in boundary layers

• When flow in boundary

layer is laminar,
• Zx of the layer increases
with x0.5
• x- distance from the leading
edge of the plate.
• For a short time after
turbulence appears Zx
increases with x1.5
• After turbulence is fully
developed flow
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow; Reynolds number

Boundary layer formation in straight tubes

Flow with unchanging velocity distribution is the fully developed flow
Transition length for laminar to turbulent flow
• Transition length
• Length of the entrance region of the tube necessary for the boundary
layer to reach the center of the tube and for fully developed flow to
establish.

Boundary layer separation and wake formation

Flow perpendicular to plate

Pressure loss in the fluid

 • At sea level the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi and the temperature is 70 F. Assuming that
the temperature doesnot change with the elevation. Calculate pressure at 1000, 10000ft. For
air mw is 29lbm/lbmol
• From the elevations shown, calculate the guage pressure in the vessel.

• Oil and gas well pressures—M. A pressure gauge at the top of an oil well 18,000 ft deep registers
2,000 psig. The bottom 4,000-ft portion of the well is filled with oil (s = 0.70). The remainder of
the well is filled with natural gas (T = 60 °F, compressibility factor Z = 0.80, and s = 0.65,
meaning that the molecular weight is 0.65 times that of air)
Basic equations of fluid flow
• Mass balance
• Steamlines
• Stream tubes – can be visualized as an imaginary pipe in the mass of
flowing fluid through the walls of which no net flow is occurring
Above equation is called equation of continuity.
For incompressible fluids a = b = 

Average velocity: velocity u will vary from point to point across the area Sa and ub will vary from
point to point across area Sb
Then comes local and average velocity
Mass flow rate through a differential area in the cross section of a stream tube is

Average velocity v of the entire stream flowing through cross-sectional area S is defined by
• Where Da and Db are the diameters of the channel at the upstream and
downstream stations, respectively.
• Mass velocity (G): mass flow rate divided by the cross sectional area of
the channel.
• G is independent of temperature and pressure when the flow is steady
and the cross section is unchanged.
• Crude oil, with specific gravity = 0.887, flows through the pipe .Pipe A is
2 in schedule 40, pipe B is 3 in schedule 40 and each of pipe C is 3/2
inch schedule 40. An equal quantity of liquid flows through each of the
pipes C. Flow through pipe A is 30 gal/min (6.65 m3/h). Calculate
a) Mass flow rate in each pipe
b) Average linear velocity in each pipe
c) Mass velocity in each pipe
A1= 0.0233ft2
A2= 0.0513ft2
A3 = 0.0141ft2
Rayleigh’s method
• Based on the fundamental principle of dimensional homogeneity of
physical variables involved in a problem
1. The dependent variable is identified and expressed as a product of all the
independent variables raised to an unknown integer exponent.
2. Equating the indices of n fundamental dimensions of the variables
involved, n independent equations are obtained .
3. These n equations are solved to obtain the dimensionless group
• Using Rayleighs method determine the rational formula for power
developed by the pump where Power P depends up on the head (H),
Discharge (Q) and specific weight of the fluids (W)
• Resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be taken as
function of length of aircraft (l), velocity (v), air viscosity (), air density
() and bulk modulus of air k. Express a functional relation between
variables.
Macroscopic momentum balance
 Momentum of a total stream Momentum correction factor
• Momentum flux :product of linear • Momentum correction factor  is
velocity and mass velocity or mass defined by the relation
flux.

• Substituting momentum flux in

• Momentum flux for the whole stream, above equation.
for a constant density is
Identifying all force components
• Pressure change in the direction of flow
• Shear stress at the boundary between fluid stream and conduit
• If the stream is inclined, component of force of gravity.
For one-dimensional flow
 Momentum balance in potential flow; Bernoulli
equation without friction
• For steady flow of a fluid in a potential flow • Rate of momentum flow

• Pressure forces normal to

the cross section
• Pressure at the side component • Component of gravity
• But dAsin is also the projection • Volume of the tube S L
of area dA on the cross section of
discharge.
• Hence pressure acting int the
direction of flow is p’dS.
• Total side force is
• Dividing by  S L
In unidirectional potential flow at a constant velocity, magnitude of velocity doesn’t affect pressure drop in the
tube.

For two definite points a and b

 Mechanical Energy equation

Each term represents a mechanical energy effect based on a unit

mass of flowing fluid
1. Term (g/gc)Z represent mechanical potential
2. U2/2gc represent kinetic energy
3. p/ represent mechanical work done by forces, external to the
stream,
Bernoulli equation: correction for effects of
solid boundaries
1. A correction of the kinetic energy term for the variation of local
velocity u with position in the boundary layer
2. Correction of the equation of the equation for the existence of fluid
friction
Kinetic energy of a stream: For velocity variation across stream
cross section
1. Consider the element of cross sectional area dS.
2. Mass flow rate through this is udS
3. Each unit mass of fluid flowing through area dS carries kinetic energy
U2/2gc
• Total flow rate of kinetic energy through the entire cross section S is

Kinetic energy per pound of flowing fluid, which replaces u2/2gc in

Bernoulli equation is
Kinetic energy correction factor

Correction factor for fluid friction.

Friction factor
• Friction generated in unseparated boundary layers is called skin friction.
• When boundary layers separate and form wakes, additional energy
dissipation appears with in the wake and friction of this type is called
form friction.
• Total friction involves both types of frictional loss.
• Brine with specific gravity 1.15, is draining from the bottom of a large
tank through a 50-mm pipe. The drainpipe ends at point 5 m below the
surface of the brine in the tank. Considering a streamline starting at the
surface of the brine in the tank and passing through the center of the
drain line to the point of discharge and assuming that friction along the
stream line is negligible calculate the velocity of flow along the streamline
at the point of discharge
• Water with a density of 998 kg/m3 enters a 50-mm (1.969 in.) pipe fitting horizontally, as shown in Figure,
at a steady velocity of 1.0 m/s (3.28 ft/s) and a gauge pressure of 100 kN/m2 (2088.5 lbf/ft2). It leaves the
fitting horizontally, at the same elevation, at an angle of 45  with the entrance direction. The diameter at the
outlet is 20 mm (0.787 in.). Assuming the fluid density is constant, the kinetic energy and momentum
correction factors at both entrance and exit are unity, and the friction loss in the fitting is negligible, calculate
a) The guauge pressure at the exit of the fitting
b) The forces in the x and y directions exerted by the fitting on the fluid.
Pump work in Bernoulli equation
• Pump is installed between a and b stations.
• Let Wp be the work done by the pump per unit mass of fluid
In the equipment shown in figure, a pump draws a solution of specific gravity 1.84 from storage tank
through a 3-in. (75-mm) Schedule 40 steel pipe. The efficiency of the pump is 60 percent. The velocity in
the suction line is 3 ft/s (0.914 m/s). The pump discharges through 2 –in (50-mm) schedule 40 pipe to an
over head tank . The end of the discharge pipe is 50 ft (15.2 m) above the level of the solution in the feed
tank. Friction losses in the entire piping system are 10 ft-lbf (29.9 J/kg). What pressure must the pump
develop? What is the power of the pump?
a) A water tank is 30 ft in diameter and the normal depth is 25 ft. The
outlet is a 4 –in horizontal pipe at the bottom. If this pipe is sheared
off close to the tank, what is the initial flow rate of water from the
tank? (Neglect friction loss in the short stub of pipe.)
b) How long will it take for the tank to empty?
c) Calculate the average flow rate and compare it with the initial flow rate.