Chapter 21

1
Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems
Third Edition
Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

2
Chapter 21
Wireless Technologies

3
Topics Covered in Chapter 21

 21-1: Wireless LAN
 21-2: PANs and Bluetooth
 21-3: ZigBee and Mesh Wireless Networks
 21-4: WiMAX and Metropolitan-Area Networks
 21-5: Infrared Wireless
 21-6: Radio-Frequency Identification and Near-Field
Communications
 21-7: Ultrawideband Wireless

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21-1: Wireless LAN

 In addition to cell phones, there are many more
wireless systems and applications in common use
today.
 These are primarily short-range systems that have a
range of a few inches up to several miles depending
upon the application.
 Each of these popular systems is defined by a specific
industry standard and is identified with one or a few
well-known applications.

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21-1: Wireless LAN
Figure 21-2: Types of WLANs. (a) Access point extension to a wired LAN. (b) Public
access point via an Internet service provider (ISP).
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21-1: Wireless LAN

 Local-area networks (LANs) within a company or an
organization are still interconnected mainly by CAT5 or
CAT6 twisted pair.
 Wireless extensions and even complete wireless
LANs have become more common now that reliable,
low-cost wireless modems are available.
 Wireless is a great way to expand an existing network.
 What makes the wireless LAN so appealing is that it
offers flexibility, convenience, and lower costs.

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21-1: Wireless LAN

 Wireless access points (APs) are available not only
within offices, but also in restaurants, coffee shops,
airports, hotels, convention centers, and other public
places.
 Access points are more commonly known as “hot
spots.” Some cities are installing municipal hot spots.
 Anyone with a laptop equipped with a LAN modem
interface can link up to the AP and access his or her e-
mail or the Internet. There are hundreds of thousands
of hot spots around the world.

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21-1: Wireless LAN

 As long as the computer is within the range of the AP,
the connection is automatic.
 Wireless LANs also serve our continuing need to be
more mobile in our jobs and activities.

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21-1: Wireless LAN

 Another growing use of wireless LANs is in the
implementation of home networks.
 Installing a wireless LAN is fast, easy, and very
inexpensive. A special box called a residential
gateway or wireless router connects to the cable TV
or DSL and serves as the access point.
 This gateway or router uses a software approach
called network address translation (NAT) to make it
appear as if each networked PC has its own Internet
address, when in reality only the one associated with
the incoming broadband line is used.
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21-1: Wireless LAN

Hardware of Wireless LANs
 The hardware devices in a wireless LAN are the access
point or the gateway/router and the radio modems in the
PCs.
 The access point is a box containing a transceiver that
interfaces to an existing LAN by way of CAT5/6 wiring.
 It gets its dc operating power via the twisted-pair
cabling.
 The IEEE 802.3af standard related to furnishing dc
power over the network cable is referred to as Power
over Ethernet (PoE).

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21-1: Wireless LAN

Hardware of Wireless LANs
 In a home network, the gateway or router is designed to
attach to the DSL or cable TV modem with CAT5/6
cable.
 It often attaches to one of the PCs in the home network
by cable.
 The other PCs link to the gateway/router wirelessly.

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21-1: Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN Standards
 One standard for wireless LANs has emerged as the
most flexible, affordable, and reliable.
 Known as the IEEE 802.11 standard, it is available in
multiple forms for different needs.
 The earliest useful and most widely adopted version of
the 802.11 standard is 802.11b.
 It operates in 11 channels in the 2.4-GHz unlicensed
ISM band.
 This band extends from 2.4 to 2.4835 MHz for a total
bandwidth of 83.5 MHz.
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21-1: Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN Standards
 The access method is direct sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS) so that multiple signals may share the same
band.
 The 802.11b standard specifies a maximum data rate to
11 Mbps. This rate is achieved only under the most
favorable path conditions.
 Increasing range or noise causes the rate to
automatically drop off to 5.5, 2, or 1 Mbps, which helps
ensure a reliable connection despite the lower speed.

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21-1: Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN Standards: IEEE 802.11n
 The newest standard is the 802.11n version.
 It uses the 2.4-GHz band and OFDM.
 A primary feature of this standard is the use of multiple-
input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems to
improve reliability of the link.
 APs for 802.11n use two or more transmit antennas and
three or more receive antennas. The wireless nodes
use a similar arrangement. In each case multiple
transceivers are required for the AP and the node.
 MIMO systems reduce multipath problems and extend
the range and reliability of the wireless link.

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21-1: Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN Standards: Wireless Security
 The 802.11 standard also includes provision for
encryption to protect the privacy of wireless users.
 Since radio signals can literally be picked up by anyone
with an appropriate receiver, those concerned about
privacy and security should use the encryption feature
built into the system.
 The basic security protocol is called Wired Equivalent
Privacy (WEP) and uses the RC4 encryption standard
and authentication.

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21-1: Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN Standards: Wireless Security
 WEP may be turned off or on by the user. It does
provide a basic level of security; however, WEP has
been cracked by hackers and is not totally secure from
the most high-tech data thieves.
 Two stronger encryption standards called Wi-Fi
Protected Access (WPA) and WPA2 are also available
in several forms to further boost the encryption process.
 The IEEE also has a security standard called 802.11i
that provides the ultimate in protection.

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21-2: PANs and Bluetooth

 A personal-area network (PAN) is a very small
network that is created informally or on an ad hoc
basis.
 A PAN typically involves two or three nodes, but some
systems permit many nodes to be connected in a
small area.
 PANs can be wired, but today all are wireless.
 The most popular wireless PAN system is Bluetooth,
a standard developed by the cell phone company
Ericsson for use as a cable replacement.

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 Bluetooth is a digital radio standard that uses
frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) in the
unlicensed 2.4-GHz ISM band.
 Three levels of transmission power have been
defined, depending upon the application.
 Bluetooth transceivers are available as single-chip
transceivers that interface to the device to be part of a
PAN.

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 Bluetooth transceivers send out search signals and
then listen for nearby Bluetooth-equipped devices.
 If another Bluetooth device comes into range, the two
Bluetooth devices automatically interconnect and
exchange data.
 These devices form what is called a piconet, the
linking of one Bluetooth device that serves as a
master controller to up to seven other Bluetooth slave
devices.
 Bluetooth devices can also link to other piconets to
establish larger scatternets.
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Figure 21-3: Bluetooth piconet with scatternet link. Up to seven devices can be actively
connected.
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 The main applications for Bluetooth are cordless
headsets for cell phones, wireless connections
between PCs, or laptop computers and PDAs.
 Bluetooth applications include: laptop connections at
meetings, wireless printer-to-PC connections, laptop-
to-cell phone connections, wireless audio headsets,
and wireless digital camera-to-TV set connections.
 The Bluetooth standard is maintained by the Bluetooth
Special Interest Group (SIG) and supported by more
than 2000 manufacturers.

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21-3: ZigBee and
Mesh Wireless Networks
 ZigBee is the commercial name for another PAN
network technology based on the IEEE 802.15.4
wireless standard.
 Like Bluetooth, it is a short-range technology with
networking capability.
 It was designed primarily for commercial, industrial,
and home monitoring and control applications.
 ZigBee is designed to operate in the license-free
spectrum.

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21-3: ZigBee and
 There are three basic bands and versions (below).
 Data rates are low, but most applications are simply
transmitting sensor data or making simple on/off
operations.
Frequency Number of Modulation Max. Data Rate, Kbps
Band Channels
868 MHz 1 DSSS/BPSK 20
(Europe)
915 MHz 1 DSSS/BPSK 40
2.4 GHz 16 DSSS/O-QPSK 250

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21-3: ZigBee and
 ZigBee’s virtue is its versatile networking capability.
 The standard supports three topologies: star, mesh,
and cluster tree. The most commonly used are the
star and mesh.
 These network topologies are made up of three types
of ZigBee nodes:
 ZigBee coordinator (ZC)
 ZigBee router (ZR)
 ZigBee end device (ZED).

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21-3: ZigBee and
 The ZC initiates a network formation. There is only
one ZC per network.
 The ZR serves as monitor or control device that
observes a sensor or initiates off/on operations on
some end device.
 It also serves as a router as it can receive data from
other nodes and retransmit it to other nodes.
 The ZED is simply an end monitor or control device
that only receives data or transmits it.

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21-3: ZigBee and
Figure 21-4: Most common
ZigBee network topologies.
(a) Star. (b) Mesh.

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21-3: ZigBee and
 In the mesh topology, most of the nodes are ZRs that
can serve as monitor and control points and can also
repeat or route data to and from other nodes.
 The mesh topology can greatly extend the range of
the network, and enhance its network reliability or
robustness.

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21-3: ZigBee and
 ZigBee can address a wide range of wireless needs.
 It was designed primarily for monitoring and control.
 Monitoring refers to looking at a wide range of
physical conditions, especially temperature, humidity,
pressure, the presence of light, speed, and position
information.
 Control refers to the sending of command signals to
initiate some action.
 Typically commands are used to turn things off and
on, such as lights, motors, solenoids, relays, and other
devices.
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21-3: ZigBee and
 Popular applications of ZigBee include:
 Monitoring and controlling lights;
 Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems in large buildings;
 Industrial monitoring and control in factories, chemical
plants, and manufacturing operations.
 Automatic electric and gas meter reading.
 Medical uses, such as wireless patient monitoring.
 Automotive sensor systems.
 Military battlefield monitoring.
 Consumer applications such as home monitoring and
control, remote control of other objects, and security.
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21-4: WiMAX and
Metropolitan-Area Networks
 Metropolitan-area networks (MANs) are primarily fiber-
optic networks, most often SONET rings, that connect
enterprise LANs to WANs or the Internet backbone.
 Another typical MAN is a local cable TV network.
 A new wireless contender for metropolitan-area
networking is known as WiMAX. It is defined by the
IEEE 802.16 standard.

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21-4: WiMAX and
 It was developed to provide a wireless alternative to
consumers for broadband Internet connections.
 These connections are now dominated by cable TV
and DSL, but with the new WiMAX standard, wireless
Internet service providers (WISPs) may soon be
offering wireless broadband connections.
 The primary standard is known as IEEE 802.16-2004
or 802.16d.

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21-4: WiMAX and
 Its primary applications will fit into two basic
categories: point-to-point (P2P) or point-to-
multipoint (PMP).
 The P2P mode is for applications requiring the transfer
of data between two points.
 The PMP mode is a broadcast mode from a central
base station to multiple surrounding nodes. In this
mode WiMAX serves as a WISP for homes or
businesses.

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21-4: WiMAX and
 WiMAX uses a 256-carrier OFDM system with
adaptive modulation.
 The OFDM method lessens the line-of-sight (LOS)
problems that occur in serving a large area.
 Reflections from buildings or signal absorption by
trees and houses make reception poor or stop
transmissions altogether.

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21-4: WiMAX and
 A mobile version of WiMAX is now available. The
standard is IEEE 802.16e 2005.
 It is designed to permit nodes to be mobile while
maintaining contact with a base station.
 WiMAX is especially attractive to developing countries
where a wireless infrastructure is easier and less
expensive to install than a traditional wired telephone
or cable TV system.

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21-5: Infrared Wireless

 Perhaps the most widespread wireless system uses
infrared (IR) light for short-distance data
communication.
 The most widely used is the wireless remote control
on TV sets, VCRs, and DVD players and on most
audio CD stereo systems.
 Infrared has also been used for wireless LANs and
PANs.

36

TV Remote Control
 Almost every TV set sold these days, regardless of size
or cost, has a wireless remote control.
 Other consumer electronic products have remote
controls including VCRs, cable TV converters, CD and
DVD players, stereo audio systems, and some ordinary
radios.
 Generic remote controls are available to hook up to any
device that you wish to control remotely.

37

TV Remote Control
 All remote control devices work on the same principle.
 A small handheld battery-powered unit transmits a serial
digital code via an IR beam to a receiver that decodes it
and carries out the specific action defined by the code.
 A TV remote control is one of the more sophisticated of
these controls, for it requires many codes to perform
volume control, channel selection, and other functions.

38

TV Remote Control
 The keyboard is a matrix of single-pole single-throw
(SPST) pushbuttons.
 The row and column connections are made to a
keyboard encoder circuit inside the IC.
 When a key is depressed, the pulses from one of the
column outputs are connected to one of the row inputs.
 The encoder circuit converts this input to a unique
binary code representing a number for channel
selection or some function such as volume control.

39

TV Remote Control
 The serial output is generated by the shift register as
data is shifted out.
 A standard nonreturn to zero (NRZ) serial code is
generated and applied to a serial encoder.
 The serial bit stream turns a higher-frequency pulse
source off and on.
 The pulses modulate the IR light source by turning it off
and on.
 The IR source is usually one or more IR LEDs. Two or
more LEDs are used to ensure a sufficient level of IR
radiation to the receiver in the TV set.

40
Figure 21-5: IR TV remote control transmitter.

41

TV Remote Control
 In an IR receiver, the PIN IR photodiode is mounted on
the front of the TV set, where it picks up the IR signal
from the transmitter.
 Two or more high-gain amplifiers boost the signal level.
 The incoming pulses are detected, shaped, and
converted to the original serial data train.
 This serial data is read by the control microcomputer
that is usually part of the TV receiver.
 The microcontroller inputs and decodes the incoming
signal and issues output control signals to all other
circuits.

42
Figure 21-7: The IR receiver and control microprocessor.

43

IR PANs
 Besides remote control, the primary application for IR
data communication is in short-distance links between
computers, computers and printers, or ad hoc PANs.
 Distance links are typically up to 1 m, however under
some conditions, the distance can be extended to 9 m.
 There must be a clear line of sight between the
transmitter and receiver.

44
Figure 21-8: Common applications for IR data communication.

45

IR PANs
 An IR transceiver connects to interface circuitry in the
PC or PDA.
 The interface is typically a small embedded controller
inside the computer or PDA.
 The encoder puts the serial digital data from the PC or
PDA into the proper format for transmission.
 A high-current bipolar transistor or MOSFET drives one
or more IR LEDs.

46

IR PANs
 The receiver consists of the PIN diode that picks up the
IR light from a nearby transmitter.
 The signal is amplified and shaped and then sent to the
decoder, which recovers the original data.
 Although many laptops and PDAs have a built-in
transceiver, their use is often restricted by this need for
line of sight.
 A better arrangement is a transceiver dongle which
consists of a cable attached to the interface in the PC or
PDA and to the movable dongle containing the LED and
PIN diode.
47
Figure 21-9: IR wireless LAN transceiver.

48

IrDA System
 The most widely used IR data communication system
was developed by Hewlett-Packard.
 It has since become an international standard that is
maintained by the Infrared Data Association (IrDA).
 The complete interface and system are referred to as
IrDA.
 The systems are designed for a short range of between
20 to 30 cm and 1m.
 The maximum usable range is 8.9 m.

49

IrDA System
 Most systems use data speed rates of 4 Mbps,
however, a 16-Mbps version is available.
 IrDA does not use a modulated IR beam, but rather
baseband transmission that requires encoding and
decoding.
 The standard NRZ serial data is converted into pulses
especially encoded for IR operation.
 The 4-Mbps version uses another encoding scheme,
called 4 PPM (pulse position modulation).

50
21-6: Radio-Frequency Identification
and Near-Field Communications
 Another growing wireless technique is radio
frequency identification (RFID).
 RFID uses thin, inexpensive tags or labels containing
passive radio circuits that can be queried by a remote
wireless interrogation unit.
 The tags are attached to any item that is to be
monitored, tracked, accessed, located, or otherwise
identified.

51
 RFID tags are widely used in inventory control,
container and parcel shipping, capital equipment and
other asset management, baggage handling, and
manufacturing and production line tracking.
 Other applications for RFID tags are personnel
security checking and access, animal tracking, and
theft prevention, automatic toll collection and parking
access for vehicles.
 As the technology develops, prices drop and new
applications are being discovered.

52
 The tag is a very thin label-like device into which is
embedded a simple passive single-chip radio
transceiver and antenna.
 The chip also contains a memory that stores a digital
ID code unique to the tagged item.
 For the item to be identified, it must pass by the
interrogation or reader unit, or the reader must
physically go to a location near the item.

53
 The reader unit sends out a radio signal that may
travel from a few inches up to no more than a hundred
feet or so.
 The radio signal is strong enough to activate the tag.
 The tag rectifies and filters the RF signal into direct
current that operates the transceiver.

54
 This activates a low-power transmitter that sends a
signal back to the interrogator unit along with its
embedded ID code.
 The reader checks its attached computer, where it
notes the presence of the item and may perform other
processing tasks associated with the application.

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Figure 21-13: Basic concept and components of an RFID system.

56
Figure 21-15: RFID tag configurations.

57
 The most recent new RFID standard is called Gen 2
for second generation.
 The standard is under the auspices of EPCGlobal, the
organization that also standardizes the Electronic
Product Code (EPC) used on all tagged items.
 A key benefit of the new standard is that it is designed
to read multiple tags faster. Tag read rates as high as
1500 tags per second are possible.
 The Gen 2 tags can operate reliably in an environment
with multiple readers transmitting and receiving
simultaneously.
58
Near-Field Communications
 One of the newest forms of wireless is a version of
RFID called near-field communications (NFC).
 It is an ultrashort-range wireless whose range is rarely
more than a few inches.
 It is a technology used in smart cards and cell phones
to pay for purchases or gain admittance to some
facilities.

59
21-7: Ultrawideband Wireless

 Perhaps the newest and most unusual form of
wireless is known as ultrawideband (UWB) wireless.
 There are two basic forms of UWB: the original
version based on very narrow impulses, and the
newer kind based on OFDM.
 The original UWB, also known as impulse, baseband,
or carrierless wireless, transmits data in the form of
very short pulses, typically less than 1 ns.

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Impulse UWB Hardware
 The UWB transmitter circuits use BPSK to generate
pulses which are applied directly to the antenna.
 The receiver amplifies the incoming signal and then
applies it to a correlator consisting of a multiplier, where
it is multiplied by a stream of coded pulses similar to
those transmitted.
 If the multiplier output exceeds a specific level, it is
considered to be detected and recovered.
 The recognized signal is then demodulated into the
original data.
 Broadband antennas are used for UWB.

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Multiband OFDM UWB
 The newest form of UWB is called multiband OFDM or
MB-OFDM UWB.
 This form of UWB divides the lower end of the assigned
spectrum into three 528-MHz-wide channels, extending
from 3.168 to 4.952 GHz.
 Each band is designed to hold an OFDM data signal.
 There are 128 carriers per band: 100 carry the data; 12
are used as pilot carriers; the remaining ones serve as
guard bands.

62

Multiband OFDM UWB
 The signal is divided up among the carriers, and each is
modulated by BPSK or QPSK depending on the data
speed selected.
 The system permits a wide range of data rates from
about 53 to 480 Mbps.
 Implementation of an OFDM UWB transceiver is just
like that of any OFDM device.

63

Advantages and Disadvantages of UWB
 UWB offers many benefits to radar, imaging, and
communication applications:
 Superior resolution in radar and imaging.
 Immunity to multipath propagation effects.
 Higher data rates than are possible with other
wireless technologies.
 License-free operation

64

Advantages and Disadvantages of UWB
 No interference to other signals using the same
frequency band. UWB signals appear as random noise
to conventional radios.
 Power-efficient. Extremely low-power operation. Peak
power levels are in the milliwatt region, and average
power in microwatts.
 This low power severely limits the range of operation.
 Simple circuitry, most of which can be integrated in
standard CMOS.
 Potentially low cost.

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Primary Application of UWB
 The primary application of impulse UWB to date has
been in military radar.
 UWB radar is used by fire, emergency, and police
personnel to see through walls and doors.
 Medical versions permit body imaging for diagnosis.
 Low-cost, short-range UWB radars that can be used in
cars and trucks for collision avoidance, automatic
braking, improved air bag deployment, and suspension
systems are under development.
 Target markets for UWB include computer peripherals
and wirelessly connecting video equipment.

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Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Topics Covered in Chapter 21

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

21-1: Wireless LAN

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

21-1: Wireless LAN

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

21-1: Wireless LAN

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-1: Wireless LAN

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21-1: Wireless LAN

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21-1: Wireless LAN

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21-2: PANs and Bluetooth

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21-2: PANs and Bluetooth

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-2: PANs and Bluetooth

21-2: PANs and Bluetooth

21-2: PANs and Bluetooth

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

2.4 GHz 16 DSSS/O-QPSK 250

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

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21-5: Infrared Wireless

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-5: Infrared Wireless

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-5: Infrared Wireless

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-5: Infrared Wireless

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-5: Infrared Wireless

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

21-5: Infrared Wireless

Figure 21-5: IR TV remote control transmitter.

21-5: Infrared Wireless

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies