ROAD USER AND VEHICLE

CHARACTERISTICS
Road User Characteristics : Diversity
Vehicles Diversity
Human Characteristics
Vehicle Characteristics
 Review of Traffic System Components

Roadways

Vehicles Road Users

Bicyclist Driver

General
Control
Environment
devices

Passenger Pedestrian
Dealing With Diversity (behavior)
• Drivers & other road users-widely varying characteristics.
• Traffic controls could be easily designed if all drivers
reacted to them in exactly the same way.
• Safety could be more easily achieved if all vehicles had
uniform dimensions, weights, & operating characteristics.
• Why complex ?? – No two road users are the same

The traffic engineer must deal with elderly drivers as

well as 18-year-olds, aggressive drivers and timid drivers,
and drivers subject to myriad distractions both inside and
outside their vehicles.
…..continued
• Most concerned one.
• Most design practices follows
“normal distribution” & “not
average” characteristics.

• A normal distribution defines the proportions of the population

expected to fall into these ranges. Because of variation, it is
not practical to design a system for “average” characteristics.
If a signal is timed, for eg., to accommodate the average speed
of crossing pedestrians, about half of all pedestrians would walk
at a slower rate and be exposed to unacceptable risks.
…..continued
• Most standards are geared to the 85th percentile or 15th
percentile characteristics.
• Speed limit -85th percentile speed
• Pedestrian walking speed -15th percentile speed
• Why walking speed is 15th percentile??
• A percentile is a measure used in statistics indicating the
value at or below which a given percentage of observations in
a group of observations fall.
• In terms of walking speed, safety demands to accommodate
slower walkers, as only 15 % of the population walks lesser
than this value. Considering driver reaction time, 85th
percentile is used, as 85% of population has a reaction time
which is equal to or lesser than this.
Diversity (Vehicles)
• Highways must be designed to accommodate motorcycles,
the full range of automobiles, and a wide range of
commercial vehicles (double and triple-back tractor-trailer
combinations).
• Thus, lane widths, for example, must accommodate the
largest vehicles expected to use the facility.
 Addressing Diversity through Uniformity
• Design of roadway systems and traffic controls is in the
core of their professional practice.
• Roadways of a similar type and function should have a
familiar “look” to drivers; traffic control devices should be
as uniform as possible. Traffic engineers strive to provide
information to drivers in uniform ways
Human Factors affecting Road User
Behavior (Driver Characteristics)

• Physiological Factors
 Permanent
 Temporary
• Mental Characteristics
• Psychological Factors
• Environmental Factors
 Road User Characteristics

Permanent Temporary
 Alcohol
Psychological  Drug
Physical Mental  Work load
 Illness
 Fear
 Vision  Knowledge  Fatigue
 Attentiveness
 Hearing  Skill  Anger
 Anger
 Strength  Intelligence
 Attitude
 Reaction-Time  Experience
 Maturity
(PIEV)  Literacy
 Impatience
 Physical Factors

 Vision
 The most important characteristic of drivers is their ability to see!!

 Evaluate the object size, shape, color

 Estimate distances and speed of bodies

 Complexity of Vision

 Light rays from objects – refracted through lens- brought to focus on retina –
image formed on retina- transmitted to brain through optic nerves

 Research has shown that approximately 90% of the information that a driver
receives is visual
 Physical Factors

 Vision
A. Vision Factors – Visual Acuity
Ability of a person to see fine details of an object.

Static visual acuity - ability to identify an object when both object and
driver are stationary.

Eg: Chart Reading Exercise

Dynamic visual acuity - ability to clearly detect relatively moving objects

- not necessarily in the driver’s direct line of vision

Eg: Traffic sign reading while moving

 Physical Factors

 Vision
A. Vision Factors – Visual Acuity
 Normal vision is taken to mean that in a well lit environment a person can recognize
a letter of about 1/3 inch in height at a distance of 20 ft then the visual acuity of the
person is 20/20.

 Normal visual acuity : referred to as 20/20 vision, the metric equivalent of which is
6/6 vision.

 A vision of 20/40 is half as good as nominal performance.

 A vision of 20/10 is twice as good as nominal performance.

 If a person has 20/40 visual acuity means, he can see the object at a distance of 20
ft (wrong vision) when a distance of 40 ft is sufficient for normal vision. From a
distance of 20 ft he can have normal vision by providing the object twice as large as
the previous one.
 Physical Factors

 Vision
A. Vision Factors – Visual Acuity
B. Vision Factors – Field of Vision
• Acute vision or clear vision cone
 3° to 10° around the line of sight;
 legend can be read only within this narrow field of vision.
• Fairly clear vision cone
 10° to 12° around the line of sight; Satisfactory Vision
 color and shape can be identified (locating traffic signs & signal)
• Peripheral vision
 160° in horizontal direction and 115° in vertical direction
 movement of objects can be detected
 For detailed attention – driver has to turns his head, to make object in clear vision
cone
 Physical Factors

 Vision
A. Vision Factors – Visual Acuity
B. Vision Factors – Field of Vision
 Physical Factors

 Vision
A. Vision Factors – Visual Acuity
B. Vision Factors – Field of Vision
C. Vision Factors –Glare Vision and Recovery
• Glare Vision - decrease ability for a driver to see and causes discomfort for
the driver.
• Glare Recovery - time it takes for a driver to recover from the effects of
glare after passing a light source.
• Research has shown that the time to recover from dark to light conditions is
3 seconds and 6 seconds to recover from light to dark conditions.
• Glare Vision is a problem for older people who drive at night.
• Glare effects can be minimized by reducing the brightness of lights and
positioning lights further from the roadway and increasing the height of the
lights.
 Physical Factors

 Vision
A. Vision Factors – Visual Acuity
B. Vision Factors – Field of Vision
C. Vision Factors –Glare Vision and Recovery
D. Vision Factors –Colour Blindness

• It is the ability to differentiate one color from another. The

deficiency in this ability is referred as color blindness.
• most common forms of color blindness involves the inability to discern
the difference between red and green.
• With age, color blindness increases.
 Physical Factors

 Vision
A. Vision Factors – Visual Acuity
B. Vision Factors – Field of Vision
C. Vision Factors –Glare Vision and Recovery
D. Vision Factors –Colour Blindness
E. Vision Factors – Depth Perception

 Depth Perception affects the ability of a driver to estimate speed and

distance.
 Extremely important on two-lane highways when a vehicle is passing
another vehicle with traffic approaching the passing vehicle.
 The ability of a driver to estimate speed, distance, size and acceleration is
generally not very accurate.
 Traffic control devices are standard in size, shape & colour provides a wide
range of drivers sufficient information to make important decisions.
 Physical Factors

 Hearing
 Hearing is an aid to the road-user which can at times be
very vital.

 The sound of a horn or the sound of the nearing vehicle

itself can alert a pedestrian to safety.

 Typically hearing is only important when emergency

vehicles are sounding a warning to get out of their way.

 Loss of hearing ability is not a serious problem, since it

can normally be corrected by a hearing aid.
 Physical Factors

 Perception-Reaction Process
Detection. In this phase, an object or condition of concern enters the driver’s
field of vision, and the driver becomes consciously aware that something
requiring a response is present.

Identification. In this phase, the driver acquires sufficient information

concerning the object or condition to allow the consideration of an appropriate
response.

Decision. Once identification of the object or condition is sufficiently

completed, the driver must analyze the information and make a decision about
how to respond.

Response. After a decision has been reached, the response is now physically
implemented by the driver.
 Physical Factors

What is PIEV Theory?

• Perception time
• Intellection time
• Emotion time
• Volition time
 Physical Factors
• Perception time – It is the time required for the sensations received by the
eyes or ears to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system
• Intellection time – It is the required for understanding the situation
• Emotion time – It is the time elapsed during emotional sensations and
disturbance such as fear, anger , etc.
• Volition time – is the time taken for the final action
- total reaction time of driver may be vary from 0.5 secs to 4
secs

• PIEV times are used in the determination of:

• Sight Distances: Stopping Sight Distance (SSD), Passing Sight
Distance (PSD) and Decision Sight Distance (DSD).
• Safe approach speeds at intersections and interchanges.
• Timing of signals at railroad crossing.
• Traffic signal change intervals.
 Physical Factors

Sight Distance – distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time.

Stopping Sight Distance – distance to stop vehicle, includes P/R and braking
distance

𝑣2
SSD = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔(𝑓±𝐺)
 Physical Factors

Factors Affecting PRT

• Age
• Fatigue
• Complexity of Reactions
• Presence of Drugs or Alcohol

• AASHTO Recommendations:
For braking reactions on Highways:
Perception and Reaction Time: 2.5 seconds (98th percentile)
For reaction time to traffic signal
Perception and Reaction Time: 1.0 Second (85th percentile)
2.5 seconds for computing stopping sight distances.
2.0 seconds for intersection sight distance due to the “degree
of anticipation” of the driver approaching an intersection
 Psychological Factors

• Personality of a person
• Emotional Factors
Attentiveness
Fear
Anger
Impatience
Attitude towards traffic rules & regulations
maturity
• Having the physical ability to operate a motor vehicle is really only half the picture
• Being in the right psychological and emotional state - having the right attitudes,
traits, and motivation is also essential to driving safely, being courteous, and
avoiding accidents and traffic citations.
 Mental Characteristics

• Knowledge, skill, intelligence experience & literacy

• Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behavior,
driving practice, road rules and psychology of road users
- safe traffic operations.
• Reactions to certain traffic situations become more
spontaneous with experience.
• Understanding the traffic regulation and special
instruction and timely action depends on intelligence and
literacy.
 Environmental Factors

• Traffic stream characteristics

Mixed or heavy traffic
Adoptability to different traffic stream
Time, place and route
• Facilities to the traffic
Time- distance economy
Comfort and safety
• Locality
Shopping centre, highly congested place
• Weather visibility
• Atmospheric Conditions
 Vehicle Characteristics

Statics Dynamic
 Dimensions  Speed
 Weight  Resistance
 Height of vehicle  Acceleration
 Height of Headlight  Braking
 Height of driver seat  Engine Horsepower
 Clearance below the
chassis
 Different Types of Vehicles

Trailer Trucks van

car

Bicycle motorcycle
 Static Characteristics

• Weight and size of the vehicle

• Maximum Allowable Truck Sizes and Weights (STAA of
1982)
• 80,000 lb gross weight, with axle loads of up to 20,000 lb
for single-axles and 34,000 lb for double-axles
• 102 in. width for all trucks
• 48 ft length for semitrailers and trailers
• 28 ft length for each twin trailer
 Representative Sample of AASHTO Design Vehicles

Vehicle Type Symbol Height Width Length

Passenger Car P 4.25 7 19
Single-Unit Truck
SU 11-13.5 8 30

City Transit Bus CITY-BUS 10.5 8.5 40

Intermediate
WB-40 13.5 8 45.5
Semitrailer
Interstate
WB-67 13.5 8.5 73.5
Semitrailer
Turnpike double
semitrailer/trailer WB-109D 13.5 8.5 114

Car and boat trailer

P/B - 8 42

Motor home & boat

MH/B 12 8 53
trailer
Farm Tractor TR 10 8-10 16
 Dynamic Characteristics

 Speed

Acceleration, Velocity, Distance and Time Equations:

Acceleration Assumed Constant:

a = dv/dt
v = 𝑣𝑜 + at
1
x = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑡+ 𝑎𝑡 2
2

Another useful formula: 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑜 2 + 2𝑎𝑥

 Dynamic Characteristics

 Deceleration
• Large Trucks decelerate at a lower rate than passenger
cars and will require a longer distance to stop than
passenger cars.
• AASHTO recommends a deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/sec2
which is a comfortable deceleration rate for most drivers.
• Many studies have shown that the deceleration rate is
greater than 14.8 ft/sec^2 under emergency situations.
 Dynamic Characteristics

 Acceleration
• The flip side of deceleration is acceleration
• Acceleration is highest at Jaw speeds and decreases with
increasing speed. The disparity between passenger cars and
trucks is significant.
 Dynamic Characteristics

 Skid Resistance
It refers to the force that develops, once the tire is prevented from rotation and
slide along the pavement surface. Skid resistances are generated from the vehicles
interval and mechanical friction from the pneumatic tires from their interactions in
the roadway surface.

 Skid Mark
 A skid mark is a tire mark on the road surface produced by a tire that is locked,
that is not rotating
 Typically appears very light at the beginning of the skid getting darker as the
skid progresses and comes to an abrupt end if the vehicle stops at the end of
the skid
 A skid mark is left when the driver applies the brakes hard, locking the wheels,
but the car continues to slide along the road. Steering is not possible with the
front wheels locked. Skid marks are generally straight but may have some
curvature due to the slope of the road.
 Dynamic Characteristics

 Skid Mark Measurements

 Dynamic Characteristics

 Braking Distance
It is the distance required for the vehicle to slow down and stop.

𝑣2
𝑑=
2𝑔(𝑓 ± 𝐺)

Where ,
v = velocity in m/s
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/ 𝑠 2
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction bet. the tire and roadway
G = grade of the roadway; (+) uphill, (-) downhill
Braking on Grades
 Motion on Circular curves

𝑊 sin 𝛽 + 𝑓𝑠 𝑊 cos 𝛽 = 𝑚𝑎𝑛 cos 𝛽

𝑊 𝑣2
𝑊 sin 𝛽 + 𝑓𝑠 𝑊 cos 𝛽 =
𝑔 𝑅
cos 𝛽 𝑣2
sin 𝛽 𝑒 + 𝑓𝑠 =
cos 𝛽
= tan 𝛽 = 𝑒 𝑔𝑅
 Dynamic Characteristics

 Pedestrian Characteristics
Pedestrians cross the street at intersection and at mid-block location

 Signalized vs. Unsignalized

 Signalized – consider the pedestrians in signal timing
 Unsignalized – consider the “gap acceptance” behavior of pedestrians.
Gap Acceptance refers to the clear time intervals between vehicles
encroaching on the crossing path and the behavior of pedestrians in
“accepting” them to cross through

 Walking speeds
 Average walking speeds range from approximately 2.5 to 6 ft/s
 Standard walking speed used in timing signals is 4 ft/s with 3.5 ft/s
recommended where older pedestrian are predominant
 For sidewalk design, 53 m/min walking speed is recommended
 Dynamic Characteristics

 Gap Acceptance
 Is measured as the time lag between 2 vehicles in any lane encroaching on the
pedestrian’s crossing path
 “accept” or “reject” the gap
 Defined as the distance between the pedestrian and the approaching vehicle at
the time the pedestrian begins his or her crossing
 A study resulted in an 85 percentile gap of approximately 125 ft
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

A driver with a perception-reaction time of 2.5 seconds is driving at

a constant speed of 75 mph when he observes that an accident has blocked the
road ahead. Compute the distance the vehicle would travel before the driver
could activate the brakes.

Solution:

Distance = Velocity(PIEV time) Must convert mph to feet per second

D = 75 miles/hour (5280 feet/mile) (1 hour/3600 seconds) (2.5 seconds)

D = 275 feet (before brakes are activated!)

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

A car travelling 70 kph requires 48 m to stop after the brakes have

been applied. What average coefficient of friction was developed between the
tires and the pavement.

Solution:
𝑣2
S = V= 70 kph
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
= 19.44 𝑚/𝑠
2𝑔(𝑓) 1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐

19.442
48 =
2(9.81)(𝑓)

f = 0.4
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Find the length of the skid mark if the average skid resistance is
0.15 and the velocity of the car when the brakes were applied was 40 kph.

Solution:

𝑣2
S = V= 40 kph
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
= 11.11 𝑚/𝑠
2𝑔(𝑓) 1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐

11.112
48 =
2(9.81)(0.15)

S = 41.94 m
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Brakes are suddenly applied on a car that is travelling down hill at

a speed of 80 kph on a grade of -4%. Find the braking distance if the
coefficient of friction between the tires and the road surface is 0.3

Solution:
𝑣2
S = V= 80 kph
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
= 22.22 𝑚/𝑠
2𝑔(𝑓−𝐺) 1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐

22.222
S =
2(9.81)(0.3−0.04)

S = 96.79 m
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Find the total distance that a car traveled from the time the driver
saw the hazard when he was traveling at 75 kph. Perception time is 2 sec and
the average skid resistance is 0.60. Assume that the car has an efficiency
of 80%.

Solution:
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑣2 V= 75 kph = 20.83 𝑚/𝑠
S = 𝑣𝑡 + 1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑔(𝑓)
f = 0.60 (0.80) = 0.48
20.832
S = 20.83 2 + 2(9.81)(0.48)

S = 87.73 m
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. A car driver travelling at a speed of 65 mph approached a hazard and travelled

72.2 m during the perception-reaction time. What was the drivers PIEV time in
seconds.
2. A car was travelling at a speed of 50 mph. The driver saw a road block 80 m ahead
and stepped on the brake causing the car to decelerate uniformly at 10 m/s^2.
Find the distance from the road block to the point where the car stopped. Assume
perception-reaction time is 2 sec.
3. A driver travelling at 50 mph is 80 m from a wall ahead. If the driver applies
the brakes immediately (PIEV) time is 2 second and begins slowing the vehicle. If
the distance from the stopping point to the wall is 10.28 m, find the
deceleration of the car.
4. Compute the total stopping distance that a car moves during the accident based on
the following data: initial velocity = 60 kph, final velocity when it stops = 0
kph, coefficient of friction between tires and roadway = 0.15, slope of roadway =
-2%, perception-reaction time = 0.75 sec.

Ans.: 2.5 s, 10.28 m, 10 m/s^2, 121.41 m