HUMAN

BIOCULTURAL
AND SOCIAL
EVOLUTION
• BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN refers to the long evolutionary
history of the human species from primates to its current form,
the Homo sapiens.
• EVOLUTION is the process of developing physical and biological
change in a species over a period of time. Natural changes and events
forced species to adapt to the environment while some faced extinction
for being unable to do so. In this case, modern humans, belonging to
the genus Homo, are seen as by-products of events and processes that
occurred in the past.
The Transition from Early to Modern Humans
• Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs,
skills, attitudes, and languages of humans over time. It proposes that as humans
transform themselves, their culture becomes progressively complex due to
social, environmental, and biological factors.
• The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced back to the beginning of
the Stone Age when they started creating and using tools made out of stones.
This is the earliest known period of human culture which started roughly 2-3
million years ago and ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE. This period is also
known as the prehistoric period because writing was not yet invented during this
time. It is divided into three separate periods:
• Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),
• Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
• New Stone Age (Neolithic).
 PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
• The Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This
period started the creation and use of crude stone tools which are
the most primitive among the three periods. The word "paleolithic"
is derived from the Greek words palaios (old) and lithos (stone) to
collectively mean "old stone age."
• The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills
with fire and stones that changed their diet and food consumption.
Hunting and fishing were the primary activities of the early humans
during the Paleolithic period. They also had their religious rituals
based on nature and developed their own language based on sounds
and hand signals.
 MESOLITHIC PERIOD
• The Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was
considered as the transition period between the Paleolithic and
Neolithic periods. The word "mesolithic" is derived from the Greek
words mesos (middle) and lithos (stone) that collectively mean
"middle stone age."
• Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and
animals. They also started to form their own settlements and
communities. Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the primary
activities of the early humans. They also started to use microliths or
smaller and more delicate stone tools.
 NEOLITHIC PERIOD
• The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek
words neos (new) and lithos (stone) that collective translates to "new
stone age."
• The Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at
this point, modern humans started to exist. From being food gatherers,
they became food producers and introduced the concept of farming. They
also became herders from being hunters during the Paleolithic and
Mesolithic periods. They crafted better stone tools and invented the axe.
Pots and jars were evident during this period which served as their food
containers and storage. Modern humans also formed their permanent
homes and started to have their own tribes and villages.
 The Neolithic Revolution
• Nomadic people who could easily transfer from one area to another
to hunt animals or gather plants for consumption and survival. This
had been the practice until around 12,000 BCE when humans started
to domesticate animals and crops. This era of this newfound lifestyle
is called the Neolithic Revolution.
• Domestication, the process of increasing human control in breeding
animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will make them
useful for other human needs. The domestication of animals and
plants implied that humans stayed in a particular area to enable their
resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals utilized for
domestication included wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and
sheep.
• Mesopotamia- one of the first Neolithic societies recorded in
existence which is at present, the country of Iraq. It was believed
that it concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies in China,
the Americas, and Africa.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
TO THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS
Sociopolitical Development
• The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of civilization through
permanent settlements dictated by reliable food supply.
• Development in domestication techniques and practices allow for a more complex
society and the possibility for urbanization.
• With the emergence of towns and cities came the birth of trade and marketplaces.
This led to the economy and a hierarchical society with public leaders and castes.
• A form of social stratification was developed. This created the idea of inequality and
ideas of social power and influence.
Economic Developments
• Because of the domestication of crops and animals, abundant
supplies of food and resources were maintained.
• A selective breeding process of plants and animals that would allow
for the development of new species was introduced.
Biological Developments
• There was increase in lifespan and human population across
civilizations.
• People learned to play different social roles apart from being farmers
(e.g. craftsman, priest, leader).
 EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE OF THE
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
• Some artifactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the
Neolithic revolution in influencing sociopolitical development.
• Here are some actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.
• There were morphological changes among Neolithic people, including brain size
and mandible and simple dietary changes from solely eating plants to
consumption of meat.
• A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to have been built
during the Neolithic Revolution and served as a communal storage facility.
• Paleolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but during the Neolithic
Revolution, there was an increased caries rate. Neolithic teeth were
also more worn down and pitted, owing to hard inclusions from poorly
grounded flour.
• Molleson (1994) has proven that there were changes in the bones of
women that were task-related and associated with cereal grinding.
The Rise of Civilizations
• Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period when the early
humans learned to settle in just one area to domesticate plants and animals for
survival. The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China
and Mesopotamia, now Iraq. The latter was part of the Fertile Crescent, an area
in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the “cradle of civilization” and
the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its
fertile land area. This area housed two bodies of water, the
rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which were also valuable resources for the early
civilizations.
• During these periods, civilizations were mainly agrarian societies that
treated both genders equally as the first labor only involved farming,
domestication, and harvesting. Though this may be the case, social roles
began to emerge, with some members of the community becoming
priests or priestesses, laborers, and farmers.
The Development of States
• In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two significant developments
took place that influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations.
• These were:
• the rise of states, and
• the invention of writing.
• Historians believe that these developments occurred because of trades among different
regions. The early civilizations would have had some form of writing to document or
record traces of their products and deals.
• During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system of commerce grew with
prosperity, leading to the development of cities and changes in sociopolitical
positions with some civilizations promoting a kingship to replace priestly rule. This
was done to foresee the flow of trade and negotiations with other regions. This era
gave rise to numerous developments such as the invention of the wheel and the
transition from the use of stone tools to copper tools.
• In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age, copper instruments were replaced
with bronze tools. Along with this, the rise of city-states continued to flourish,
thereby laying out a foundation for economic and political stability. As a result, more
empires, civilizations, and states began to rise and develop.
Implications of the Rise of Civilizations
and States
• The rise of civilizations and states led to urbanization, economic focus, political
power, and material development. These changes allowed both positive and
negative implications that directly affected future developments in the
sociopolitical evolution of men.
• Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states.
• Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among
them. Soon, professional armies and weaponry began to make their
appearance.
Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of
civilizations and states. During this time, people began to discover various raw
materials, such as iron, copper, and bronze for making tools and weapons.

Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, leadership

among city-states began to be more organized and developed. With the
kingship system replacing the priestly leaders, each state had its executive
branch that centralized decisions and communications with other states.
Evidence for the Existence of Civilizations and
States
• Artifactual evidence prove the existence and occurrence of early civilizations
and states.
• Here are some of the actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.
• In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley discovered the remains of two four-
wheeled wagons that dated back to the time of Mesopotamia.
• Excavations in the 1840s revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia during
10,000 BCE.
• Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.
• Democracy means "rule by the people." The term comes from the Greek
words demos, which means "people," and kratos, which means "rule." While
democracy is often traced back to the Greeks, particularly the Athenian
democracy during 5th century BCE, a form of primitive democracy is said to
have existed during the hunting and gathering period in independent tribes.
• The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form
of direct democracy where citizens participate directly in decision-making. On
the other hand, the evolved form of democracy−−**representative
democracy**−−that became widespread in nation-states is where officials are
elected to represent a group of people.
Historical Path to a Democratic City-State
• Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually spread to the nearby
civilizations of Greece and Rome. Both Greeks and Romans adapted to the
farming culture developed by the Mesopotamians, even following the latter’s
sociopolitical structure of kingship. Eventually, they were able to engage in
trade as their resources highly developed and impacted socioeconomic growth.
Greece
Societal status and groups began to develop:
• the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states),
• the aristocracies and noblemen, then
• the farmers.
• Wars were already occurring between city-states, and tension grew between social
classes.
• Greek kings had growing ambitions to transform themselves into wealth-laden
rulers just like their predecessors from the Bronze Age.
• The need for power was not feasible as the primarily abundant metal during the
period was iron, a relatively cheaper metal compared to bronze. If the king sought
greater power, he would not be able to do so easily since weaponry and machinery,
primarily made of iron, were much cheaper, and could be afforded by practically
anyone within the city-state.
• In 750 BC, with high tension and alarm over the intentions of the king, the
noblemen gathered together and ousted him, leading to a successful
establishment of the first republics.
 The Beginnings of Democratization
-The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of
democracy and the rise of democratization in societies.

Oligarchy
• Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.
• City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy where rulers were from
aristocratic families.
• Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between city-
states, even ordinary people like the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against
drastic changes.
• The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so ordinary
people also used their collective power against an abusive government.
Tyranny
• Since there were few noble people in government, city-states, in effect, were ruled by a
tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader that means “boss.”
• Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and farmers.
• For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
• In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some wrong
and abusive decisions that eventually lead to another revolution, ousting the tyrant rule.
Birth of Democracy
• Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states proposed
that power must be held by the common people.
• This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing the
city-states to have a democratic setting.
• In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise
of democracy in Greece.
SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPLICATIONS OF
DEMOCRATIZATION
• The development of democracy led to changes that greatly impacted the ordinary people by
reducing inequality and promoting fair treatment for all. The beginnings of democratization
in Greece laid a foundation for modern-day democracy.
• Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic
implications that eventually distinguished Greek and Roman civilizations from any other
ancient civilization.
• Below are some artifactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications of
democratization.
• Greek literature began its ascent as poet Homer created his epics, the Iliad and theOdyssey.
• Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through classical Greek
structures upon the rise of democratization.
• Archaeologists have discovered artifactual pieces of evidences even
dating back to the beginning of human evolution. As a result, present-
day social and biological scientists are able to open a window to what
life was in the past. In this lesson, the significance and value of artifacts
in several aspects will be described and discussed.
• Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are
recovered after a long time through archaeological endeavor or by
chance. Apart from serving as windows to the past, artifacts are also
deemed significant because they are tangible or authentic proof that a
certain period in history actually occurred.
The Significance of Artifacts
• Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting social,
cultural, political, and economic processes that occurred in
the past. Their existence proves and describes these aspects
thoroughly. The discovery of artifacts and the understanding
of various processes have provided a stable foundation for
the socioeconomic, political, and cultural growth that
humans have come to recognize today.
• Artifacts are irreplaceable. Artifacts, being made hundreds, even
thousands of years ago, are very delicate objects that cannot be
replaced by any available material in the present time.
• Artifacts are keys to understanding the past. Practices that
occurred in the past would not have been known if not for the
discovery of artifacts.
• Artifacts give people a sense of identity. Artifacts greatly describe
culture and society. They provide people with an opportunity to
further understand their identities and heritage, as well as some
collective qualities that their culture may have.
• The past is yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great
successes archaeologists have made in recent years, there is still
more to discover about history. Treating artifacts like pieces of
puzzles will eventually provide a general picture of the past.
Present-day “Artifacts” for the Future
• Many advances have already been made and discovered within
this century. It is logical to treat these discoveries as significant
elements that can help shape the future. As such, the
technologies and developments that the world has today must
also be well-preserved. These must be treated with certainty
that one day, these “artifacts” will be discovered and be
understood by future generations.