ELECTRIC AND HYBRID

VEHICLES-
MODULE I

To provide knowledge about

working and analysis of electric
vehicle technology
Ms. PRATHIBHA P.K.
Asst: Professor
DEE, RSET
Current Scenario
• Transportation sector is the largest user of
energy
• As the oil reserve of the world diminishes it will
result in huge price rises
• Global warming- climate change and rising sea
levels which could destroy many of the world’s
coastal cities
• It is necessary to develop clean, efficient and
sustainable vehicles from economic and
environmental point of view
Drawbacks of IC engine vehicle
technology
(i) Exhaust emissions are the major source of urban pollution
(e.g.: Delhi metro city).
(ii) The exhaust emissions ultimately contributes to the
development of green house effect leading to global
warming
(iii) The dependence of oil as a source of energy for passenger
vehicles has got adverse economical and political
implications
(iv) The oil crisis will inevitably become acute as the oil
reserve of the world diminishes
(v) Increase in vehicle numbers for use in roads add on to the
total pollution
(vi) Poor energy conversion efficiency of IC engines
Electric Vehicles(EV)
• Electric vehicles are enabled by high
efficiency electric motors and controllers
and powered by alternate energy sources
(e.g. solar/wind)
• EV’s are the only zero emission vehicle
possible
• EVs provide the means for a clean,
efficient and environment friendly urban
transportation system
Electric Vehicles(EV)
• Electric vehicles were developed and used as
early as the middle of the 19th century

• In the year 1900, 4200 automobiles were sold

out of that 40% were steam powered, 38%
electric powered, and 22% gasoline powered

• A resurgence of interest in EV occurred in

1960’s
EV System
• An EV has the following two features:
1. The energy source is portable and chemical or
electromechanical in nature
2. Traction effort is supplied only by an electric
motor
Figure 1.1 shows an EV system driven by a
portable energy source.
The electromechanical energy conversion linkage
system between the vehicle energy source and the
wheels is the drivetrain of the vehicle. The drivetrain
has electrical as well as mechanical components.
Components of an EV
• The primary components of an EV system
are the motor, controller, power source, and
transmission
• The detailed structure of an EV system and
the interaction among its various
components are shown in Figure 1.2.
• It also shows the choices available for each
of the subsystem level components
Components of an EV
• Electrochemical batteries have been the
traditional source of energy in EVs
• Lead-acid batteries have been the
primary choice, because of its well-
developed technology and lower cost
• The batteries need a charger to restore the
stored energy level once its available
energy is near depletion due to usage
Components of an EV
• Alternative energy sources are also being
developed for zero-emission vehicles
• The limited range problem of battery-
driven EVs prompted the search for
alternative energy sources, such as fuel
cells and flywheels
• The majority of electric vehicles developed
so far are based on DC machines,
induction machines, or permanent magnet
machines
Components of an EV
• The electric motor is driven by a power-
electronics-based power-processing unit
• It converts the fixed DC voltage available
from the source into a variable voltage,
variable frequency source
• It is controlled to maintain the desired
operating point of the vehicle
Components of an EV
• The enabling technology of power
electronics is a key driving force in
developing efficient and high-performance
power-train units for EVs
• High-power devices in compact packaging
are available today
• It enables the development of light weight
and efficient power-processing units
known as power electronic motor
drives
Components of an EV
• The developments in high-speed digital signal
processors or microprocessors enable complex
control algorithm implementation with a high
degree of accuracy

• The controller includes algorithms for the

motor drive in the inner loop as well as
system-level control in the outer loop
Components of an EV
Components of an EV
• The electric motor design includes not
only electromagnetic aspects of the
machine but also thermal and mechanical
considerations
• The motor design tasks of today are
supported by finite element studies and
various computer-aided design tools,
making the design process highly
efficient.
Components of an EV
• The disadvantages of DC machines pushed
EV developers to look into various types of
AC machines
• The maintenance-free, low-cost induction
machines became an attractive alternative
to many developers
• However, high-speed operation of
induction machines is only possible with a
penalty in size and weight
Components of an EV
• Excellent performance together with high-
power density features-permanent magnet
machines
• The cost of permanent magnets can become
prohibitive
• High-power density and a potentially low
production cost-switched reluctance machines
• However, the acoustic noise problem has so
far been a deterrent for the use of SRM in
EVs.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles(HEV)
• The manufacturers of EVs in the 1990s
realized that their significant research and
development on ZEV technologies were
hindered by unsuitable battery technologies

• A number of auto industries started developing

HEVs to overcome the battery and range
problem of pure electric vehicles
Hybrid Electric Vehicles(HEV)
• The Japanese auto industries lead this trend
with Toyota, Honda, and Nissan
• Already marketing their Prius, Insight, and
Tino model hybrids.
• The hybrid vehicles use an electric motor and
an internal combustion engine and, thus, do
not solve the pollution problem, although it
does mitigate it
Hybrid Electric Vehicles(HEV)
• It is perceived by many that the hybrids, with
their multiple propulsion units and control
complexities, are not economically viable in
the long run

• Toyota, Honda, and Nissan are marketing the

hybrid vehicles well below the production
cost, with significant subsidy and incentive
from the government
Hybrid Electric Vehicles(HEV)
• However, the cost of HEVs and EVs are expected to
be high until production volume increases
significantly.
• Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) can be a viable
alternative to battery electric vehicles, serving as
zero-emission vehicles without the range problem.
• Toyota is leading the way with FCEV
• The Toyota FCEV is based on the Toyota RAV4
Hybrid Electric Vehicles(HEV)
Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV)
• HEV is formed by merging components from a
pure electrical vehicle and pure gasoline
vehicle
• EVs and HEVs have a M/G which enables
regenerative braking
• For HEV, M/G tucked directly behind the
engine
Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV)

• Transmission appears next in line

• Two torque producers- M/G in motor mode

and Gasoline engine
Hybrid Electric Vehicles(HEVs)
Electro chemical cell

A critical issue for battery life and safety is the precise control
of charging/discharging cycle
Overcharging can be treated as a cause of fire and failure
Application imposes two boundaries or limitations on
batteries;
1. Minimum allowed State of Charge (SoC)
2. Minimum voltage allowed from the battery
EV advantages

• The relative advantages and disadvantages of

an EV over an ICEV can be better appreciated
from a comparison of the two on the bases of;

 Efficiency,
 Pollution,
 Cost and dependence on oil
Efficiency comparison
• The comparison must be executed with care, ensuring
fairness to both systems
• To evaluate the efficiencies of EV and ICEV on level
ground, the complete process in both systems starting
from crude oil to power available at the wheels must
be considered
• The EV process starts not at the vehicles, but at the
source of raw power whose conversion efficiency
must be considered to calculate the overall efficiency
of electric vehicles
Efficiency comparison
• The power input PIN to the EV comes from
two sources;
▫ the stored power source and
▫ the applied power source.
Stored power is available during the process from an
energy storage device.
The power delivered by a battery through
electrochemical reaction on demand or the power
extracted from a piece of coal by burning it are
examples of stored power
Efficiency comparison
• Applied power is obtained indirectly from raw
materials.
• Electricity generated from crude oil and
delivered to an electric car for battery charging
is an example of applied power.
• Applied power is labeled as PIN RAW while
stored power is designated as PIN PROCESS
in Figure
Complete EV process

• The complete EV process can be broken

down into its constituent stages involving
a chain of events- power generation,
transmission, and usage
• Raw power from the applied source is fed
to the system only at the first stage
• although stored power can be added in
each stage
Complete EV process
Efficiency comparison
• Each stage has its efficiency based on total input
to that stage and output delivered to the
following stage.
• Overall efficiency can be calculated by
multiplying the efficiencies of individual stages
•
ICEV Process
ICEV Process
• Starting from the conversion of crude oil to
fuel oil in the refinery, the ICEV process
include;
▫ the transfer of fuel oil from refinery to gas
stations
▫ Power conversion in the IC engine
▫ Power transfer from the engine to the wheels
through the transmission before it is
available at the wheels
ICEV Process
• The efficiency of ICEV process is the product
of efficiencies of individual stages and it is
given by

• A sample comparison of EV and ICEV process

is given as table and overall efficiency of EV
is comparable to overall efficiency of ICEV
Efficiency comparison
Pollution comparison
• Transportation accounts for one third of
energy usage , making it the leading cause of
environmental pollution through carbon
emissions
• With 100% electrification, i.e., every ICEV
replaced by an EV, the following was claimed:
1. Carbon dioxide in air, which is linked to
global warming, would be cut in half.
2. Nitrogen oxides would be cut slightly,
depending on government-regulated utility
emission standards.
Pollution comparison
3. Sulfur dioxide, which is linked to acid rain,
would increase slightly
4. Waste oil dumping would decrease, because
EVs do not require crankcase oil
5. EVs reduce noise pollution, because they are
quieter than ICEVs
6.Thermal pollution by large power plants
would increase with increased EV usage.
Pollution comparison
• EVs will considerably reduce the major causes
of smog
• substantially eliminate ozone depletion
• reduce greenhouse gases
• With stricter SO2 power plant emission
standards, EVs would have little impact on
SO2 levels
• Pollution reduction is the driving force behind
EV usage
Capital and operating cost comparison

• The initial EV capital costs are higher than

ICEV capital costs primarily due to the lack of
mass production opportunities
• However, EV capital costs are expected to
decrease as volume increases
• Capital costs of EVs easily exceed capital
costs of ICEVs due to the cost of the battery
Capital and operating cost comparison
• The power electronics stages are also
expensive, although not at the same level as
batteries
• Total life cycle cost of an EV is projected to be
less than that of a comparable ICEV
• EVs are more reliable and will require less
maintenance, giving a favorable bias over
ICEV as far as operating cost is concerned
EV market
• EVs have penetrated the market of off-road
vehicles successfully over the years for clean
air as well as for cost advantages
• Examples of such applications are airport
vehicles for passenger and ground support
• recreational vehicles as in golf carts and for
theme parks
• plant operation vehicles like forklifts and
loader trucks
• vehicles for disabled persons
EV market
• Utility vehicles for ground transportation in closed
but large compounds
• There are also EVs that run on tracks for material
haulage in mines
• There is potential for EV use for construction
vehicles
• The locomotives that run on tracks with electricity
supplied from transmission lines are theoretically no
different from other EVs
• The major difference being in the way energy is fed
for the propulsion motors
EV market
• The major impediments for the mass acceptance of
EVs by the general public are the limited EV range
and the lack of EV infrastructure
• The solution of the range problem may come from
extensive research and development efforts in
batteries, fuel cells, and other alternative energy
storage devices
• An alternative approach is to create awareness among
people on the problems of global warming and the
advantages of EVs
EV market
• The appropriate infrastructure must also be in
place for EVs to become more popular.
• The issues related to infrastructure are as
follows:
• Battery charging facilities: residential and
public charging facilities and stations
• Standardization of EV plugs, cords, and
outlets, and safety issues
• Sales and distribution
• Service and technical support
• Parts supply
EV market

• The current initial cost of an EV is also a big

disadvantage for the EV market
• The replacement of the batteries, even for
HEVs, is quite expensive, added to which is
the limited life problem of these batteries
• The cost of EVs will come down as volume
goes up, but in the meantime, subsidies and
incentives from the government can create
momentum
Dynamics of vehicle movement
• In a vehicle several forces act on it and the net
or resultant force governs the motion
according to the Newton's second law
• The propulsion unit of the vehicle delivers the
force necessary to move the vehicle forward
• This force of the propulsion unit helps the
vehicle to overcome the resisting forces due to
gravity, air and tire resistance
Dynamics of vehicle movement

• The acceleration of the vehicle depends on:

1. the power delivered by the propulsion unit
2. the road conditions
3. the aerodynamics of the vehicle
4. the composite mass of the vehicle
Dynamics of vehicle movement

• The mathematical framework required for the

analysis of vehicle mechanics based on
Newton’s second law of motion.
The following topics are covered .
• General description of vehicle movement
• Vehicle resistance
• Dynamic equation
• Tire Ground Adhesion and maximum tractive
effort
Dynamics of vehicle movement
Dynamics of vehicle movement
• Figure shows the forces acting on a vehicle up a
grade
• The tractive effort Ft, between tires of the driven
wheels and rolling surface propels the vehicle
forward
• It is produced by the power plant torque and is
transferred through transmission and final drive
to the drive wheels
• While the vehicle is moving there is resistance
that tries to stop its movement
General Description of Vehicle
Movement
• The resistance usually includes tire rolling resistance,
aerodynamic drag and uphill resistance
• According to Newton’s second law, the vehicle
acceleration can be written as;
General Description of Vehicle
Movement
• Indicates that speed and acceleration depends
on tractive effort, resistance and vehicle mass
Rolling Resistance
• The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces
is due to hysteresis in the tire material
• This is due to the deflection of carcass while
the tyre is rolling
Rolling Resistance
• the hysteresis causes an asymmetric
distribution of the ground reaction forces
• When the tire rolls, the leading half of the
contact area is loading and the trailing half is
unloading
• Thus, the pressure on the leading half is
greater than the pressure on the trailing half
• This phenomenon results in the ground
reaction force shifting forward
Rolling Resistance

• The shift in the ground reaction force creates a

moment that opposes rolling of the wheels
• On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is
mainly caused by deformation of the ground
surface
• In this case the ground reaction force almost
completely shifts to the leading half
Rolling Resistance

• In Figure 2a tire at standstill is shown

• On this tyre a force ( P ), is acting at its centre

• The pressure in the contact area between the

tire and the ground is distributed
symmetrically to the centre line and the
resulting reaction force (Pz) is aligned along P
Vehicle resistance
Rolling Resistance
• The moment produced by forward shift of the
resultant ground reaction force is called rolling
resistance moment
•
Rolling Resistance
• To keeps the wheel rolling, a force Fr, acting on the
centre of the wheel is required to balance this rolling
resistant moment
• This force is expressed as
Rolling Resistance
• The rolling resistance moment can be equivalently
replaced by horizontal force acting on the wheel
centre in the direction opposite to the movement of
the wheel
• This equivalent force is called the rolling resistance
and its magnitude is given by
Rolling Resistance
• When a vehicle is moving up a gradient, the normal
force (P) is replaced by the component that is
perpendicular to the road surface. Hence, equation is
rewritten as;
Rolling Resistance
• The rolling resistance coefficient, fr, is a
function of:
• tire material
• tire structure
• tire temperature
• tire inflation pressure
• tread geometry
• road roughness
• road material
• presence or absence of liquids on the road
Rolling Resistance coefficient
• the rolling resistance coefficient of a passenger car on
a concrete road may be calculated as:

• fo and fs depends on inflation pressure of the tire

Rolling Resistance coefficient
• In vehicle performance calculation, it is sufficient to
consider the rolling resistance coefficient as a linear
function of speed
• For most common range of inflation pressure, the
following equation can be used for a passenger car on
a concrete road
Aerodynamic drag

• A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air

encounters a force resisting its motion
• This force is known as aerodynamic drag
• The main causes of aerodynamic drag are;
• shape drag
• skin effect
1.Shape Drag
• The shape drag is due to the shape of the
vehicle
• The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the
air in front of it
• However, the air can not instantaneously
move out of the way and its pressure is thus
increased
• This results in high air pressure in the front of
the vehicle
1.Shape Drag
• The air behind the vehicle cannot
instantaneously fill the space left by the
forward motion of the vehicle
• This creates a zone of low air pressure
• Hence, the motion of the vehicle creates two
zones of pressure
1.Shape Drag

• The high pressure zone in the front of the

vehicle opposes its movement by pushing it
forward
• On the other hand, the low pressure zone
developed at the rear of the vehicle opposes its
motion by pulling it backwards
• Resulting force is shape drag
1.Shape Drag
2. Skin Friction

• The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves

almost at the speed of the vehicle
• while the air away from the vehicle remains
still
• Between these two layers (the air layer moving
at the vehicle speed and the static layer) the
molecules move at a wide range of speeds
2. Skin Friction

• The difference in speed between two air

molecules produces friction
• This friction results in the second component
of aerodynamic drag and it is known as skin
friction
Aerodynamic drag
• The aerodynamic drag is expressed as;
Aerodynamic drag

• Aerodynamic drag is a function of vehicle speed

V, vehicle frontal area, shape of the vehicle and
air density
Grading Resistance

• When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its

weight produces a component of force that is
always directed downwards
• This force component opposes the forward
motion, i.e. the grade climbing
• When the vehicle goes down the grade, this
force component aids the vehicle motion
Grading Resistance
• In vehicle operation only uphill condition is
considered
• this grading force – grading resistance
• The grading resistance can be expressed as
Grading Resistance

• In order to simplify the calculation, the road

angle , is usually replaced by the grade value,
when the road angle is small
• The grade value is defined as;
Grading Resistance

• the tire rolling resistance and the grading

resistance taken together and are
called road resistance
• The road resistance is expressed as;
References

1. I. Hussein, Electric and Hybrid Vehicles:

Design Fundamentals, CRC Press,2003
2. M. Ehsani etal. , Modern Electric, Hybrid
Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles: Fundamentals,
Theory and Design, CRC Press,2005.
3. Chris Mi etal., Hybrid Electric Vehicles,
Principles and applications with practical
perspectives, Wiley, 2011
Power Train tractive Effort and
Vehicle speed
• An automotive drive train is shown in Figure
It consists of:
• a power plant
• a clutch in a manual transmission or a torque
converter in automatic transmission
• a gear box
• final drive
• differential shaft
• driven wheels
Power Train
Power Train
• The torque and rotating speed from the output
shaft of the power plant are transmitted to the
driven wheels through the clutch or torque
converter, gearbox, final drive, differential and
drive shaft
• The clutch is used in manual transmission to
couple or decouple the gearbox to the power
plant
Power Train
• The torque converter in an automatic transmission is
hydrodynamic device, functioning as the clutch in
manual transmission with a continuously variable
gear ratio

• The gearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input

shaft to its output shaft for the power plant torque-
speed profile to match the requirements of the load
Power Train tractive Effort
• The final drive is usually a pair of gears that supply a
further speed reduction and distribute the torque to
each wheel through the differential

• There are two limiting factors to the maximum

tractive effort of the vehicle:
1.Maximum tractive effort that the tyre-ground
contact can support
2.Tractive effort that the maximum torque of the
power plant can produce with the given driveline gear
ratios
Power Train tractive Effort
• The torque transmitted from the power plant to
the driven wheels (Tw) is given by:
Power Train tractive Effort
• The tractive effort on the driven wheels is
expressed as
Power Train tractive Effort

• Substituting value of Tw from Equation

1 into Equation 2 gives

• The rotating speed of the driven wheel is given

by
Vehicle speed

• The rotational speed Np of the transmission is

equal to the engine speed in the vehicle with a
manual transmission and the turbine speed of a
torque converter in the vehicle with an
automatic transmission
Vehicle speed

• By substituting the value of Nw in the above

equation, the vehicle speed can be expressed
as