EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH

PRESENTED BY :- GROUP NO:7

JAYASOORYA. J
MAYA K N
NEEDHU VARGHESE
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 OVERVIEW

• Principles of experiment
• Methods of experimentation
• Laboratory experiment
• Design & execution of laboratory experiments
• Errors in experiment
• Experimental design
• Principles of experimental design
• Basic designs
• Statistical designs
• References

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 CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN

• Experimentation in which a researcher systematically

changes the values of one or more independent
variables to measure their influence on one or more
dependent variables.
• I:Independent variable
• D:Dependent variable
• I is causal to D, if every change in I induces change in
D

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 PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENT
Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y " will have the
following meaning to an ordinary person and to a
scientist.
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.

X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the

(X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probable
cause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y).

It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a

that X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can
infer that X is a cause of Y.
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 CONDITIONS FOR CAUSALITY
• Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause,
X, and an effect, Y, occur together or vary together in
the way predicted by the hypothesis under
consideration.
• The time order of occurrence condition states that the
causing event must occur either before or
simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur
afterwards.
• The absence of other possible causal factors means
that the factor or variable being investigated should be
the only possible causal explanation

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 METHODS OF EXPERIMENTATION
• Laboratory experiments
• Uncontrolled /natural experiments
• Ex post facto experiment
• Trial and error experiment
• Controlled observation study
• Field experiments: action research, evaluative research
etc
True experiment - a single variable is used for the purpose
of control
Field study - inclusion of as many variables to make the
setting more natural 6
 BASIC TERMS IN EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
Experiment : A set of one or more runs of a system under
specified conditions.
Experiment unit : It is the study object from which data are
collected in the experiment . If study object are people , they will
be referred to as subjects or else as test units as in engineering
research.
Factor: It is an independent variable. It may be
• Qualitative :nominally scaled
• Quantitative: measurable on interval
• Manipulative: whose value can be changed
• Classificatory: used for classification but values can not be
changed
• Blocking: independent variable that is extraneous 7
 BLOCKING FACTOR
• Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study, but may affect the dependent variable
– The researcher wants to test the hypothesis: a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and
their self-concepts
• Self-concept is an independent variable, social studies
achievement is a dependent variable.
• Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the
study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an
extraneous variable.
• Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of
extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an
‘experimental error’.
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Nuisance variable:
A quantity that cannot be controlled but which affects the dependent
variable.
Treatment:
It is a specific experimental condition
Eg:- If we want to determine through an experiment the
comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the
yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers
will be treated as three treatments
Experimental design:
This is the research design of experiment consisting of layout ,
specific details of data , sample size and analysis.
Random assignments:
Allocation of the subjects in the random sample into
experimental and non experimental groups(control group)

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 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT

• Laboratory depicts pure situations

• Exact situation and precise control
• Hypothesis, hunches, insights arise in real life setting
but the definitive result and explanation can be
derived only in laboratory experiments
• Elaborate our knowledge obtained from observation
or field studies.

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 DIFFICULTIES OF PERFORMING
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
• The strength of variables is weak in laboratory
experiments.
• Manipulation of several variables simultaneously is
difficult , particularly if the manipulation is through
verbal instructions , as in generally the case.
• Variables may be irrelevant ie no relationship is not
found.

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 DESIGN OF LABORATORY
EXPERIMENTS
• The design must be drawn carefully in a deliberate manner
– Details of data
– Data collection method
– Sample size
– Analysis required.
• The measurement device required must be developed.
• Any deficiency in the experimental design is rectified
progressively with a few interactions in the same conditions or
in trial experiments.

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 EXECUTION OF LABORATORY
EXPERIMENTS
• Selection of subjects
• Size of a group
• Cognitive aspects of a subject
• Choice of activities of a group
• Orientation of the subjects
• Control and manipulation of variable
• Measurement

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 STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS

Strength
• Internal validity high - results can be stated
confidently
Weakness
• Does not ensure surety of result
• Poor representation of natural process
• Representativeness of the sample is difficult to be
accomplished

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 ERRORS IN EXPERIMENT
• History: Extraneous variables that occur between pre
measurement and post measurement
• Pre measurement: Effect of initial measurement
• Maturation: Psychological, organizational or physical
process that varies symmetrically over time
• Selection: Inequality of experimental and control
group
• Interaction error: Joint effect of pre measurement &
independent variable

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• Instrumentation error: Change in measuring
instruments over time
• Reactivity error: Artificiality of experimenter can not
be controlled
• Mortality: Loss of subject
• Timing Error: Inappropriate timing of measurement
• Surrogate situation: Difference of actual and original
samples

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 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
An experimental design is a plan for assigning
experimental units to treatment levels and the statistical analysis
associated with the plan

Design of experiment generally has five steps:

– Definition of the goals of the experiment

– Identification and classification of variables

– Development of a model of relationship between

independent and dependent variable

– Choice of an appropriate experimental design

– Ensuring the validation of the design 17

18
 PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
• Method of agreement
• Method of difference
• Joint method of agreement and difference
• Method of residues
• Method of concomitant variations

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 METHOD OF AGREEMENT

If two or more instances of a phenomenon under

investigation have only one circumstance in common,
the circumstance in which alone all the instances
agree is the cause of the given phenomenon

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METHOD OF AGREEMENT

A
P
B

A
P
C

A Causes P
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 METHOD OF DIFFERENCE

If an instance in which the phenomenon under

investigation occurs and an instance in which it does
not occur have every circumstance save one in
common, the one occurring only in the former, the
circumstance in which alone the two instances differ
is necessary part of the case of the phenomenon

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METHOD OF DIFFERENCE

A
B
C P
D

B
C Not P
D

A Causes P
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JOINT METHOD OF AGREEMENT AND
DIFFERENCE
If two or more instances of a phenomenon
under investigation have only one
circumstance in common, while two or more
instances in which it does not occur have
nothing in common save the absence of that
circumstance in which alone the two sets of
instances differ is a necessary part of the cause
of the phenomenon

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JOINT METHOD OF AGREEMENT AND
DIFFERENCE

A
B P
C

A
E P
F B
C Not P

E Not P
F

A causes P
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 METHOD OF RESIDUES

If a range of factors are believed to cause

a range of phenomena, and we have matched
all the factors, except one, with all the
phenomena, except one, then the remaining
phenomenon can be attributed to the
remaining factor

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A
B X, Y, Z
C

B Y

C Z

A is the cause or effect of x

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 METHOD OF CONCOMITANT
VARIATIONS

If across a range of circumstances leading to a

phenomenon, some property of the phenomenon
varies in tandem with some factor existing in the
circumstances, then the phenomenon can be
associated with that factor

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A

B X, Y, Z

C
A+

B X+, Y, Z
C

A and x are causally connected

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 CLASSIFICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
• Basic designs:
 No. independent variables dealt with is one
• Statistical designs:
 No. of independent variables dealt with are more than
one
 Involve statistical considerations as well as analysis of
results

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 BASIC DESIGNS
• Used with single variable manipulations
• Basic notations used are
 T= Treatment
 O=Observation, outcome, dependent variable
or effect
 R=Random assignment
o Basic experiments are:-
Randomized two group design
Before-after two group design
Simulated before-after design
Solomon four group design
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RANDOMISED TWO GROUP DESIGN
Subjects are randomly assigned both to the experimental
group and control group

T 01

No T 02

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 BEFORE-AFTER TWO GROUP
DESIGN
• Pre-tests are carried out on both groups before
treatment is given
• To ensure both groups are equivalent
01 T 02

03 No T 04

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 SIMULATED BEFORE-AFTER
DESIGN
• Controls the premeasurement and
interaction errors using separate groups
for pre-and post-measurements
• Used in advertising management or
research
R MA

MA-MB
R T MB
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 SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
• Combination of design 1 & design 2
• Two groups for each design

01 T 02
Design 2
03 No T 04
R
T 05
Design 1
No T 06

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 STATISTICAL DESIGNS
• Designs having two or more treatments
• Can deal with the effects of more than one
variable in experimentation
• Commonly used design layouts are:-
 Factorial design
Within subjects design or repeated measures
design
Randomised block design
Latin squares design
Cross-over design

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 FACTORIAL DESIGN
• When it is necessary to experiment with concomitant variations of
two or more independent variables

• Design consists of every possible combination of two independent

variables V1 and V2
TV1. TV2 01 Expt.(1)

TV1. No TV2 02 Expt.(2)

R
No TV1. TV2 03 Expt.(3)

No TV1. No TV2 04 Expt.(4)

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 WITHIN SUBJECTS DESIGN OR
REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN

• The same subject is exposed to different treatments

• The performance/ outcome is measured repeatedly
• Variations caused over the repetitions in the outcome
of a single subject are noted
• These will correspond to the manipulated variables
under the control of the experimenter

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 RANDOMISED BLOCK DESIGN
• Randomly divides the experimental units into t
groups of size n. These groups are called blocks
• Randomly assigns a treatment to each group
• Repeated measures have been taken on each
group
• Focus is on the differences among the different
groups

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Example:
For comparing the effect four different chemicals
(A, B, C and D) in producing water resistance (y) in
textiles
The following experiment is interested in.
– A strip of material, randomly selected from each bolt, is
cut into four pieces (samples) the pieces are randomly
assigned to receive one of the four chemical treatments
– This process is replicated three times producing a
Randomized Block (RB) design
– Moisture resistance (y) were measured for each of the
samples. (Low readings indicate low moisture
penetration)

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 Diagram: Blocks (Bolt Samples)
9.9 C 13.4 D 12.7 B
10.1 A 12.9 B 12.9 D
11.4 B 12.2 A 11.4 C
12.1 D 12.3 C 11.9 A

Randomised block table: Blocks (Bolt Samples)

Chemical 1 2 3
A 10.1 12.2 11.9
B 11.4 12.9 12.7
C 9.9 12.3 11.4
D 12.1 13.4 12.9

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 LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
• Treatments are assigned at random within rows
and columns, with each treatment once per row
and once per column
• There are equal no. of rows, columns and
treatments
• Useful where the experimenter desires to control
variations in two different directions

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Procedure to create a Latin square design
1) Write down any Latin square of the required size
2) Randomize the order of the rows
3) Randomize the order of the columns
4) Randomize the allocation of treatments to the letters of the
square
Example: An experiment to investigate the effect of
various dietary starch levels on milk production was
conducted on four cows
Four diets: T1, T2, T3 and T4
Four periods: period1, period 2, period 3 and period 4

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 Step 1

Column 1 Column 2 Column3 Column4

Row 1 A B C D

Row 2 B A D C

Row 3 C D B A

Row 4 D C A B

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 Step 2

Column 1 Column 2 Column3 Column4

Row 2 B A D C

Row 4 D C A B

Row 1 A B C D

Row 3 C D B A

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 Step 3

Column 1 Column 4 Column3 Column2

Row 2 B C D A

Row 4 D B A C

Row 1 A D C B

Row 3 C A B D

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 Step 4

A=T4, B=T1, C=T3, D=T2

Cow 1 Cow 4 Cow3 Cow2

Period 2 T1 T3 T2 T4

Period 4 T2 T1 T4 T3

Period 1 T4 T2 T3 T1

Period 3 T3 T4 T1 T2

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 CROSS OVER DESIGN
• Different treatments are applied to the same test unit during
different periods
• If there is no carry over effect a Latin square design can be
used
• Example:

1 2 3
I A B C
II B C A
III C A B

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• When carry over effect is there, an effect in a particular test
unit in a particular period, is the sum of the effect due to
treatment in the period and the effect due to treatment of the
previous period
• Double change over design

1 2 3
I A B C
II B C A
III C A B
IV C B A
V A C B
VI B A C
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 REFERENCES

• K. N. Krishnaswamy, Appa Iyer Sivakumar,M.

Mathirajan, ‘Management Research Methodology’
• C. R. Kothari, ‘Research Methodology’

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THANK YOU

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QUERIES?

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