Design of Machine Element

ME - 6205

Sujeet Kumar Mishra

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology
(A Deemed University)
Mesra, Ranchi – 835 215 India

E-mail: sujeetmishra@bitmesra.ac.in
Machine design is defined as the use of
scientific principles, technical
information & imagination in the
description of a machine or a
mechanical system to perform specific
functions with maximum economy &
efficiency
Design Process
Basic requirements of Machine Elements

Strength
Rigidity
Wear Resistance
Minimum Dimensions & Weight
Manufacturability
Safety
Conformance to standards
Reliability
Maintainability
Minimum Life-cycle Cost
Basic procedure of Design of Machine Element
 Use of Standard in Design

Standardization is the obligatory norms, to which various characteristics

of a product should conform. The characteristics include materials,
dimensions and shape of the component, method of testing and method
of marketing, packing and storing of the product.

Following standards are used in Mechanical Engineering Design

i) Standards for materials, their chemical compositions, Mechanical

properties & heat treatment
ii) Standards for shapes and dimensions of commonly used machine
elements
iii) Standards for fits, tolerances and surface finish of component
iv) Standards for testing of products
v) Standards for engineering drawing of components
Ergonomic considerations in Design
The word ergonomics is coined from two Greek words
‘ergon’ means ‘work’ and ‘nomos’ means ‘natural laws’
Ergonomics means the natural laws of work
Ergonomics is defined as the relationship between man and machine and the
application of anatomical, physiological & pshychological principles to solve the
problems arising from man-machine relationship.

Man-Machine closed loop system

Preferred Numbers
The system is based on the use geometric progression to develop a set of
numbers
There are five basic series denoted as R5, R10, R20, R40, and R80 series which
increases in steps of 56%, 26%, 12%, 6% and 3% respectively
Each series has its own series factor as shown below
Q (1) Find out the number of the R5 basic series from 1 to 10

Q (2) Find out the numbers of R20/4 (100, ……………………..1000) derived series

Q (3) A manufacturer is interested in starting a business with five different models of

tractors ranging from 7.5 to 75 kW capacities. Specify power capacities of the models.
There is an expansion plan to further increase the number of models from five to nine
to fulfill the requirement of farmers. Specify the power capacities of the additional
models.
Selection of Material
• Selection of proper material for the machine components is one of the most
important steps in process of machine design
• The best material is one which will serve the desired purpose at minimum costs

Factors Considered while selecting the material:

i) Availability: Material should be readily available in market in large enough
quantities to meet the requirement
ii) Cost:
iii) Mechanical properties:
iv) Manufacturing Considerations:
• In some applications machinability of material is an important consideration in
selection
• Where the product is of complex shape, castability or ability of the molten metal
to flow into intricate passages is the criterion of material selection
• In fabricated assemblies of plates & rods, weldability becomes the governing
factor
Engineering Materials

Stress-Strain diagram of ductile materials

Mechanical Properties of Materials
a) Strength: Ability of the material to resist, without rupture, external forces causing
various types of stresses
b) Elasticity: Ability to regain its original shape & size after deformation, when the
external forces are removed
c) Plasticity: Ability to retain the deformation produced under the load on a permanent
basis
d) Stiffness or Rigidity: Ability to resist deformation under the action of an external
load
e) Resilience: Ability to absorb energy when deformed elastically & to release this
energy when unloaded
f) Toughness: Ability to absorb energy before fracture takes place
g) Malleability: Ability to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack, when it is
subjected to compressive force
h) Ductility: Ability to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack, when
subjected to tensile force
i) Brittleness: Property of the material which shows negligible plastic deformation
fracture takes place
j) Hardness: Resistance to penetration or permanent deformation
 Cast Iron
Cast iron is an alloy of iron & carbon, containing more than 2% of carbon
Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is:
Carbon = 3-4%
Silicon = 1-3%
Manganese = 0.5-1%
Sulphur = up to 0.1%
Phosphorous = up to 0.1%
Iron = Remainder
The mechanical properties of cast iron components are inferior to the parts, which
are machined from rolled steels
Advantages:

Available in large quantities, higher compressive strength, components can be given

any complex shape without involving costly machining operations, excellent ability to
damp vibrations, more resistance to wear even under the conditions of boundary
lubrication, mechanical properties of parts do not change between room
temperature and 350 degree centigrade
 Designation of STEELS
Steels are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any one of the
following three properties
•Tensile strength
•Carbon content
•Composition of alloying elements

Example:
Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of 360 N/mm2
FeE 250 indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250 N/mm2

55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55% carbon and 0.4% manganese
40C8 indicates a steel with 0.35-0.45% carbon and 0.7-0.9% manganese

25C12S14 indicates a free cutting steel with 0.25% carbon, 1.2% manganese and
0.14% sulphur
20C12Pb15 indicates a free cutting steel with an average of 0.20% carbon, 1.2%
manganese, and 0.15% lead
 Plain Carbon Steels
Depending upon the percentage of carbon, plain carbon steels are classified as:
i) Low carbon steel – Less than 0.3% carbon, popularly known as mild steel, its soft
& ductile, easily machined & welded, however due to low carbon content
unresponsive to heat treatment
ii) Medium carbon steel – carbon content in the range of 0.3% to 0.5%, popularly
known as machinery steel, easily hardened by heat treatment , stronger &
tougher than low carbon steel, well machined, respond readily to heat treatment
iii) High carbon steel – more than 0.5% carbon, popularly known as hard steels or
tool steels, respond readily to heat treatment, when heat treated attain high
strength combined with hardness, less ductile than low carbon steels & medium
carbon steels, difficult to weld, excessive hardness accompanied by excessive
brittleness
In applications like automobile bodies & hoods, the ability of the material to deform to
a greater extent or ‘ductility’ is the most important consideration so a plain carbon
is preferred
In applications like gears, machine tool spindles & transmission shaft, strength
toughness & response to heat treatment are important considerations, medium &
high carbon steels are preferred
Spring wires are subjected to severe stress & strength is the most important
consideration so high carbon steel is selected for helical & leaf springs
 Alloy Steels
• Carbon steel to which one or more alloying elements are added to obtain certain
beneficial effects
• The commonly added elements include silicon, manganese, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum and tungsten
• The term ‘alloy steels’ usually refers to ‘low’ alloy steels containing from 1-4% of
alloying elements
• Alloy steels have higher strength, hardness & toughness, higher hardenability,
retain their strength & hardness at elevated temperatures, higher resistance to
corrosion and oxidation
Silicon increases strength & hardness without lowering the ductility. Silicon is added
in spring steel to increase its toughness
Manganese increases hardness and toughness and also increases the depth of
hardening
Nickel increases strength, hardness and toughness without sacrificing ductility
Chromium increases hardness & wear resistance, steel containing more than 4%
chromium have excellent corrosion resistance
Molybdenum increases hardness & wear resistance, resists softening of steel during
tempering and heating
Tungsten & molybdenum have similar effects. Tungsten is expensive. 2-3% tungsten
is required to replace 1% of molybdenum

Application of Alloy steels

55Si7 Leaf and coil springs

37C15 Axle, shaft and crankshaft
35Mn6Mo3 Bolt, stud, axle lever and general engineering components
16Mn5Cr4 Gears and shafts
40Cr4 Coil, laminated and volute springs
40Cr4Mo2 Shaft, axle high tensile bolt, stud and propeller shaft
40Cr13Mo10V2 Components subjected to high tensile stresses
30Ni5Cr2 Heavy duty gears
40Ni6Cr4Mo2 General machine parts, nuts and bolts, gears, axles, shafts and
connecting rod
Ceramics
Plastics
Fibre Reinforced Plastics
Natural & Synthetic Rubbers
Tolerances
• Due to the inaccuracy of manufacturing methods, it is not possible to machine a
component to a given dimension
• The components are so manufactured that their dimensions lie between two limits –
maximum and minimum
• The basic dimension is called the normal or basic size while the difference between
the two limits is called permissible tolerance
• Tolerance is the permissible variation in the dimensions of the component
• The two limits are the upper and lower deviations
• There are two systems of specification for tolerances namely unilateral & bilateral

• In unilateral systems, one tolerance is zero while the other takes care of all
permissible variations in basic size

Example:

• In case of bilateral tolerances, the variations are given in both directions from
normal size

• The upper limit in this case is the basic size plus non-zero positive tolerance and
the lower limit is the basic size plus non-zero negative tolerance

Example:
Fits
• When two parts are to be assembled, the relationship resulting from the difference
between their sizes before assembly is called a fit
• Depending upon the limits of the shaft & hole, fits are broadly classified into three
groups – clearance fit, transition fit and interference fit
• Clearance fit always provide a positive clearance between the hole and the shaft
over the entire range of tolerances
• Interference fit always provides a positive interference over the whole range of
tolerances
• Transition fit provides either a clearance or interference depending upon the actual
values of the individual tolerances of the mating components

Types of Fits: (a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit
Design against Static loads
A static load is a force which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
which does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time
A mechanical components may fail, i.e., may be unable to perform its function
satisfactorily, as a result of any one of the following three modes of failure:
i) Failure by elastic deflection
ii) Failure by general yielding &
iii) Failure by fracture
In applications like transmission shaft supporting gears , the maximum force
acting on the shaft, without affecting its performance, is limited by the permissible
elastic deflection. Elastic deflection results in unstable conditions, such as
buckling of columns or vibrations
A mechanical components made of ductile material loses its engineering
usefulness due to a large amount of plastic deformation after the yield point is
reached. Considerable portion of the component is subjected to plastic
deformation called general yielding
Components made of brittle material cease to function satisfactorily because of
the sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. The failure in this case is
sudden & total
Design of Cotter Joint
• A cotter joint is used to connect two co-axial rods, which are subjected to either axial
tensile force or axial compressive force
• It is also used to connect a rod on one side with some machine part like a
crosshead or base plate on the other side
• It is not used for connecting shafts that rotate & transmit torque

Typical applications of cotter joint:

i) Joint between the piston rod & the crosshead of a steam engine
ii) Joint between the slide spindle & fork of the valve mechanism
iii) Joint between the piston rod & the tail or pump rod
iv) Foundation bolt
 Notations used:
P = tensile force acting on rods (N)

d = diameter of each rod (mm)

d1 = outside diameter of socket (mm)

d2 = diameter of spigot or inside diameter of socket (mm)

d3 = diameter of spigot-collar (mm)

d4 = diameter of socket-collar (mm)

a = distance from end of slot to the end of spigot on rod-B (mm)

b = mean width of cotter (mm)

c = axial distance from slot to end of socket collar (mm)

t = thickness of cotter (mm)

t1 = thickness of spigot-collar (mm)

l = length of cotter (mm)

 Design procedure for Cotter joint
i) Calculate the diameter of each rod by
d= 4P/πσt
ii) Calculate the thickness of the cotter by the empirical relation
t = 0.31d
iii) Calculate the diameter d2 of spigot on the basis of tensile stress
P = [π/4(d22 - d2 t]σt
iv) Calculate the outside diameter d1 of the socket on the basis of tensile stress in
the socket
P = π/4 {(d12 – d22) – (d1 – d2)t] σt
v) The diameter of the spigot collar d3 & diameter of the socket collar d4 are
calculated by the following empirical relationship
d3 = 1.5 d
d4 = 2.4 d
vi) The dimensions ‘a’ and ‘c’ are calculated by the following empirical relationship
a = c = 0.75 d
vii) Calculate the width ‘b’ of the cotter by shear consideration and bending
consideration and select the width, whichever is maximum between these two values


b = P/2 t or b =[3P/t σb{(d2/4) +(d4 – d2/6)}]1/2
viii) Check the Crushing & Shear stresses in the Spigot end
σc = P/td2  = P/2ad 2

ix) Check the Crushing & Shear stresses in the Socket end
σc = P/ (d4 – d2)t  = P/{2(d – d ) c}
4 2

x) Calculate the thickness t1 of the spigot collar by the empirical relationship

t1 = 0.45 d
Knuckle Joint
Knuckle Joint is used to connect two rods whose axes either coincide or intersect
and lie in one plane
Knuckle joint is used to transmit axial tensile force
The construction of this joint permits limited angular movement between rods, about
the axis of the pin
Knuckle joint is unsuitable to connect two rotating shafts which transmit torque

Typical application of Knuckle joint

i) Joints between the tie bars in roof trusses
ii) Joints between the links of a suspension bridge
iii) Joints in valve mechanism of a reciprocating engine
iv) Fulcrum for the levers
v) Joints between the links of a bicycle chain
 Notations used:

D = diameter of each rod (mm)

D1 = enlarged diameter of of each rod (mm)

d = diameter of knuckle pin (mm)

d0 = outside diameter of eye or fork (mm)

a = thickness of each eye of fork (mm)

b = thickness of eye end of rod-B (mm)

d1 = diameter of pin head (mm)

x = distance of the centre of fork radius R from the eye (mm)

 Design procedure for Knuckle joint
i) Calculate the diameter of each rod by
D = (4P/ πσt)1/2
ii) Calculate the enlarged diameter of each rod by empirical relationship
D1 = 1.1 D
iii) Calculate the dimensions ‘a’ and ‘b’
a = 0.75 D ; b = 1.25 D
iv) Calculate the diameters of the Pin by Shear consideration & bending consideration
and select the diameter, whichever is maximum

d = (2P/ π )1/2 or d = [32P/2πσ (b/4 + a/3)]1/3
b
v) Calculate the dimensions d0 and d1 by empirical relationship
d0 = 2d d1 = 1.5d
vi) Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the eye
σt = P/{b(d0 – d)} σc = P/bd  = P/{b(d – d)}
0


vii) Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the fork
σt = P/{2a(d0 – d)} σc = P/2bd = P/{2a(d0 – d)}
Threaded Joints
Threaded joint is defined as a separable joint of two or more machine parts that are
held together by means of a threaded fastening such as a bolt and a nut
It is used to hold two or more machine parts together. These parts can be dismantled
if required without any damage to machine parts or fastening, therefore detachable
joints
Design against Fluctuating loads
Forces vary in magnitude with respect to time
Stresses induced due to such forces are called Fluctuating stresses
It is observed that about 80% of failures of mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue
failure’ resulting from fluctuating stresses
There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses – fluctuating
stresses, repeated stresses & reversed stresses
 Stress Concentration
Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the
irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross section
In order to consider the effect of stress concentration & find out localized stresses, a
factor called stress concentration factor is used.
It is denoted by Kt and defined as
Kt = Highest value of actual stress near discontinuity/Nominal stress obtained by
elementary equations for minimum cross section
= σmax/σo
= τmax/τo
Where
 Fatigue Failure
• Materials fail under fluctuating stresses at a stress magnitude which is lower than
the ultimate tensile strength of the materials
• Sometimes, the magnitude is even lower than the yield strength
• It has been found that the magnitude of the stress causing fatigue failure decreases
as the number of stress cycles increase
• This phenomenon of decreased resistance of the materials to fluctuating stresses is
the main characteristics of fatigue failure

Fatigue failure is defined as time delayed fracture under cyclic loading

Welded Joints
Welding is the process of joining metallic parts by heating to a suitable temperature with
or without the application of pressure
Welding is an economical & efficient method for obtaining a permanent joint of metallic
parts
There are two distinct applications of welded joints –
Used as a substitute for riveted joint & welded structure as an alternative method for
casting or forging
Advantages of Welded Joints
• Riveted joints require additional cover plates, straps, clip angles & large number which
increase the weight
• Due to elimination of these components, the cost of welded assembly is lower than that
of riveted joints
• Welded assemblies are tight & leak proof as compared with riveted assemblies
• The production time is less for welded assemblies
• When two parts are joined by the riveting method, holes are drilled in the parts to
accommodate the rivets. The holes reduce the cross-section of the members & result in
stress concentration. There is no such problem in welded joints
• The strength of welded joint is high
 Stress Relieving of Welded Joints

Welded joints are subjected to residual stresses due to non-uniform heating of the parts
being joined.
There is always a possibility that localized thermal stresses may result from uneven
heating and cooling during fusion and subsequent cooling. This also results in distortion.
The magnitude of residual stresses cannot be predicted with any degree of certainty

This is the major disadvantages of welded joints

The following two methods can reduce the residual stresses:

• preheating of weld area to retard cooling of the metal in the vicinity of the joint
• stress relieving of weld area by using proper heat treatment such as normalizing &
annealing in temperature range of 550º to 675º
 Classification of Welded joints
Butt Joints: A joint between two components lying approximately in the same plane.
A butt joint connects the ends of the two plates
Lap Joints (Fillet Joint): A joint between two overlapping plates or components

Types of Welded Joint

Types of Butt Joint Types of Fillet Joint

 Strength of Butt Welds
The butt welded joint subjected to tensile force ‘P’ is shown in fig. below.

The average tensile stress in the weld is given by

σt = P/hl
Where,
σt = tensile stress in the weld (N/mm2)
P = tensile force on the plates (N)
h = throat of the butt weld (mm)
l = length of the weld (mm)
The throat of the weld does not include the bulge or reinforcement. The reinforcement is
provided to compensate for flaws in the weld.
Equating the throat of the weld ‘h’ to the plate thickness ‘t’ in the above equation
The strength equation of butt joint can be written as
P = σt t l
Where,
P = tensile force on plates (N)
σt = permissible tensile stress for the weld (N/mm2)
t = thickness of the plate (mm)
If ɳ is the efficiency of the welded joint
Then strength of butt joint can be re-written as
P = σt t l ɳ
 Strength of parallel Lap welds
A parallel lap weld subjected to a tensile force ‘P’ is shown in fig. below

Parallel fillet weld in shear

There are two terms related to the dimensions of the fillet weld viz., leg ‘h’ and throat ‘t’
The size of the weld is specified by the leg length
The cross-section of the fillet weld consists of a right angled triangle having two equal
sides. The length of each of the two equal sides is called a leg. As a rule, the leg length
‘h’ is equal to plate thickness.
The throat is the minimum cross-section of the weld located at 45º to the leg dimension.
Therefore
t = h cos(45º) = 0.707 h
Failure of the fillet weld occurs due to shear along the minimum cross-section at the
throat
It is proved that for parallel fillet weld, the inclination of the plane where maximum shear
stress is induced, is 45º to the leg dimension.
Shear failure of the weld shown in fig.(b)
The cross-sectional area at the throat is ( t l) or (0.707 h l)
The shear stress in the fillet weld is given by
Ʈ = P/0.707 h l
The strength equation of the parallel fillet weld is written as
P = 0.707 h l Ʈ
Where,
P = tensile force on the plates (N)
h = leg of the weld (mm)
l = length of weld (mm)
Ʈ = permissible shear stress for the weld (N/mm2)
Usually there are two welds of equal length on two sides of the vertical plate, in that
case
P = 2 (0.707 h l Ʈ )
= 1.414 h l Ʈ
 Strength of transverse fillet welds
A transverse fillet weld subjected to a tensile force ‘P’ is shown in fig. below

Failure of fillet weld

The transverse fillet welds are subjected to tensile stress.

The minimum cross-section of the weld is at the throat, therefore the failure due to
tensile stress will occur at the throat section. The cross-section area at throat is (t l)
The tensile stress in the transverse fillet is given by
σt = P/t l
= P/0.707 h l
or, P = 0.707 h l σt
Where,
σt = permissible tensile stress for the weld (N/mm2)
Q1. A Plate 100 mm wide and 10 mm thick is welded to another steel plate by means of
double parallel fillet welds as shown in fig (a) The plates are subjected to a static tensile
force of 50 kN. Determine the required length the welds if the permissible shear stress in
the weld is 94 N/mm2
Q2. Two steel plates 120 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick are joined together by means of
double transverse fillet welds as shown in fig (b) The maximum tensile stress for the
plates and the welding material should not exceed 110 N/mm2. Find the required length
of the weld, if the strength of the plates.
Q3. A plate 75 mm wide and 10 mm thick is joined with another steel plate by means of
single transverse and double parallel fillet welds as shown in fig (c) The joint is subjected
to a maximum tensile force of 55 kN. The permissible tensile and shear stresses in the
weld material are 70 and 50 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the required length of each
parallel fillet weld.

Fig (c)
Riveted Joints
Riveted & Welded joints are permanent joints
Permanent joints are those joints which cannot be disassembled without damaging the
assembled parts
Bolted joints, cotter joints are separable joints, which permit disassembly & reassembly
without damaging the assembled parts
A rivet consists of a cylindrical shank with a head at one end as shown in fig. This head
is formed on the shank by an upsetting process in a machine called an automatic header
The rivet is inserted in the holes of the parts being assembled and the head is firmly held
against the back up bar.
In the riveting process, the protruding end of the shank is upset by hammer blows to
form the closing head.
In rivet terminology, the closing head is called the point
The head, shank and point are three main parts of the rivet

A rivet is specified by the shank diameter of the rivet e.g., a 20 mm rivet means a rivet
having 20 mm as the shank diameter
Riveted Joint
 Types of riveted joints

Riveted joints used for joining the plates are classified into two groups
Lap joint & Butt joint
Lap joint consists of two overlapping plates, which are held together one or more rows of
rivets.
Depending upon the number of rows, the lap joints are further classified into
• single-riveted lap joint
• double-riveted lap joint
• triple riveted lap joint
In double or triple riveted lap joints, the rivets can be arranged in chain pattern or zig-zag
pattern as shown in fig (b) and fig (c) respectively

A chain riveted joint is a joint in which the rivets are arranged in such a way that rivets in
different rows are located opposite to each other.

A zig-zag riveted joint is a joint in which the rivets are arranged in such a way that every
rivet in a row is located in the middle of the two rivets in the adjacent row.
(a) Single riveted lap joint (b) Double riveted chain joint (c) Double riveted zig-zag joint
Types of Single-riveted Butt Joint Types of Double-strap Butt Joint
(a) Single Strap (b) Double Strap (a) Chain pattern (b) Zig-zag pattern
 Terminology of riveted joints

Pitch (p): Distance between the centre of one rivet to the centre of the adjacent rivet in
the same row.
Usually p = 3d where ‘d’ is the shank of the rivet

Margin (m): Distance between the edge of the plate to the centreline of rivets in the
nearest row.
Usually m = 1.5d

Transverse pitch (pt): Also called back pitch or row pitch, is the distance between two
consecutive rows of rivets in the same plate
Usually pt = 0.8p (for chain riveting)
= 0.6p (for zig-zag riveting)

Diagonal pitch (pd): Distance between the centre of one rivet to the centre of adjacent
rivet located in the adjacent row
 Rivet Materials

Rivets used in most of the applications are made of mild steel

There are two varieties of steel rivet bars – hot rolled steel rivet bar and high tensile
steel rivet bar
Their chemical composition is as follows
carbon = 0.23% (max)
sulphur = 0.05% (max)
phosphorus = 0.05% (max)

Rivets used in corrosive atmosphere are made of stainless steel

Rivets used for connecting non ferrous metals and soft materials are made of copper,
brass, bronze and aluminium alloys
 Types of failure in Riveted joints
• shear failure of the rivet
• tensile failure of the plate between two consecutive rivets
• crushing failure of the plate
• shear failure of the plate in the margin area
• tearing of the plate in the margin area
 Strength Equations
(i) Shear strength of rivets:
The strength equation is given as Ps = πd2Ʈ/4
Where,
Ps = shear resistance of rivet per pitch length (N) Shear failure in rivets

d = shank diameter of rivet (mm)

Ʈ = permissible shear stress for rivet material (N/mm2)
In case of double or triple riveted lap joints, there are number of rivets & above equation
can be modified as
Ps = πd2Ʈn / 4 (for single shear)
Where, n = number of rivets per pitch length
For double riveted joint, n = 2
For triple-riveted joint n = 3 and so on……………
In case of double strap single-riveted butt joint, the rivets are subjected to double shear
as shown in fig (b).
The area that resists shear failure is twice the c/s area of the rivet
Ps = 2 (πd2Ʈn /4) (for double shear)
(ii) Tensile strength of plate between rivets

The tensile resistance of plate between two rivets is given by

Pt = (p - d) t σt
Where,
Pt = tensile resistance of plate per pitch length (N)
p = pitch of rivets (mm)
t = thickness of plate (mm)
σt = permissible tensile stress of plate material (N/mm2)

(iii) Crushing strength of plate

The crushing resistance of the plate is given by
Pc = d t σc n
Where,
Pc = crushing resistance of plate per pitch length (N)
σc = permissible compressive stress of plate material (N/mm2)
(iv) Efficiency of joint
It is the ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the strength of unriveted solid plate
ɳ = Lowest of Ps, Pt and Pc / P
Where,
P = strength of solid plate of width, equal to the pitch ‘p’ and thickness ‘t’ subjected
to tensile stress σt
Caulking & Fullering
In applications like pressure vessels & boilers, the riveted joint should be leak proof &
fluid tight.
Caulking & fullering processes are used to obtain such leak proof riveted joints. The
caulking process is applied to the edges of plates in a lap joint & the edges of strap plate
in butt joint. These edges are first beveled to approximately 70º to 75º and the caulking
tool is hammered on the edge as shown in fig (a) The caulking is done either by hand
hammer or by the use of pneumatic or hydraulic hammer. The head of the rivet is also
hammered down with the caulking tool.
The blows of caulking tool closes the surface asperities & cracks on the contacting
surfaces between two plates & also between the rivet & the plates, resulting in leak proof
joint.
Fullering is similar to the caulking process except for the shape of the tool. The width of
the fullering tool is equal to the thickness of the plate being hammered.
 Fullering
F
Q1. A brake band attached to the hinge by means of a riveted joint as shown in fig (a)
Determine the size of the rivets needed for the load of 10 kN. Also, determine the
width of the band. The permissible stresses for the band and rivets in tension, shear
and compression are 80, 60 and 120 N/mm2 respectively. Assume
margin (m) = 1.5 d
transverse pitch (pt) = P
Find the pitch of the rivets Fig (a)

Q2. Two flat plates subjected to a tensile force P are connected together by means of
double-strap butt joint as shown in fig (b) The force P is 250 kN and the width of the
plate w is 200 mm. The rivets and plates are made of the same steel and the
permissible stresses in tension, compression and shear are 70, 100, and 60 N/mm2
respectively. Calculate
i) The diameter of the rivets
ii) The thickness of the plates
Fig (b)
iii) The dimensions of the seam,
viz., p, pt and m and
iv) The efficiency of the joint
There are two types of riveted joints in a cylindrical boiler shell. They are called
longitudinal butt joint & circumferential lap joint. The plate of the boiler shell is
bent to form the ring and the two edges of the plate are joined by a longitudinal butt
joint. This longitudinal joint is usually a double strap triple riveted butt joint.
The circumferential joint is used to get the required length of the boiler shell by
connecting one ring to another. For this purpose, one ring is kept overlapping over
the adjacent ring and the two rings are joined by a circumferential lap joint.
Longitudinal butt joint for Boiler shell
i) Thickness of boiler shell
t = Pt Dt / 2 σt
Where,
t = thickness of cylinder wall (mm)
Pt = internal pressure (N/mm2)
Di = inner diameter of the cylinder (mm)
σt = permissible tensile stress for the cylinder material (N/mm2)
If ɳ is the efficiency of the riveted joint, then
t = Pt Dt / 2 σt ɳ
The wall of the boiler shell is subjected to thinning due to corrosion, which reduces the
useful life of the shell. Provision has to be made by suitable increase in the wall
thickness to compensate for the thinning due to corrosion.
Introducing corrosion allowance (mm)
t = (Pt Dt / 2 σt ɳ) + CA
ii) Diameter of Rivet
d = 6 (t)1/2
iii) Pitch of Rivet
iv) Transverse pitch (Pt)
Pt = 0.33 p + 0.67 d (for zig zag riveting)
Pt = 2 d (for chain riveting)
v) Margin (m)
m = 1.5 d
vi) Thickness of straps (t1)
t1 = 0.75 t (for wide strap)
t1 = 0.625 t (for narrow strap)
vii) Permissible stresses
 Circumferential lap joint for boiler shell

Q1. A cylindrical pressure vessel with 1 m inner diameter is subjected to internal steam
pressure of 1.5 MPa. The permissible stresses for the cylinder plate and the rivets in
tension, shear and compression are 80, 60 and 120 N/mm2 respectively. The
efficiency of longitudinal joint can be taken as 80% for the purpose calculating the
plate thickness. The efficiency of circumferential lap joint should be at least 62%.
Design the circumferential lap joint and calculate
i) Thickness of the plate
ii) Diameter of the rivets
iii) Number of rivets
iv) Pitch of rivets
v) Number of rows of rivets and
vi) Overlap of the plates
Design of shaft
Design of Keys
A key is a machine element which is used to connect the transmission shaft to rotating
machine elements like pulleys, gears, sprockets or flywheels
A keyed joint consisting of shaft, hub and key as shown in fig below
Basic functions of key
i) To transmit the torque from the shaft to the hub of the mating element & vice versa
ii) To prevent relative rotational motion between the shaft and the joined machine
element like gear or pulley
In most of the cases, it also prevents axial motion between two elements
A recess or slot machined either on the shaft or in hub to accommodate the key is called
keyway
The keyway results in stress concentration in the shaft and the part becomes weak
This is the main drawback of a keyed joint
Material for keys
Keys are made of plain carbon steels 45C8 or 50C8 in order to withstand shear &
compressive stresses resulting from transmission of torque
According to Indian standards, steel of tensile strength not less than 600 N/mm2 shall be
used as the material for the key
Classification of keys
i) Saddle key & shunk key
ii) Square key & flat key
iii) Taper key & parallel key
iv) Key with & without Gib-head
v) Woodruff key
vi) Kennedy key
vii) Feather key
 Design of Square & Flat keys
Q1. Design a square key for fixing a gear on a shaft of 25 mm diameter. The shaft is
transmitting 15 kW power at 720 rpm to the gear. The key is made of steel 50C4 (Syt =
460 N/mm2) and the factor of safety is 3. For key material, the yield strength in
compression can be assumed to be equal to the yield strength in tension. Determine the
dimensions of the key.
Design of Couplings
Coupling is a mechanical device that permanently joins two rotating shafts to each other
Example:
1. A coupling is used to join the output shaft of an engine to the input shaft of a
hydraulic pump to raise water from well
2. A coupling is used to join the output shaft of an electric motor to the input shaft of a
gearbox in machine tools
3. A coupling is also used to join the output shaft of an electric motor to the input shaft
of a compressor
Difference between rigid and flexible couplings
A rigid coupling can’t tolerate misalignment between the axes of the shafts. On the other
hand, the flexible coupling, due to provision of flexible elements like bush or disk can
tolerate 0.5º of angular misalignment and 5 mm of axial displacement between the
shafts.
The flexible elements provided in the flexible couplings absorb shocks & vibrations.
There is no such provision in rigid coupling.
Rigid coupling is simple & inexpensive. Flexible coupling is comparatively costlier due to
additional parts
Muff coupling
This coupling is also called as sleeve coupling or box coupling. It is a type of rigid
coupling.
The construction of muff coupling is shown in fig below.
It consists of a sleeve or a hollow cylinder, which is fitted over the ends of input and
output shafts by means of a sunk key. The torque is transmitted from the input shaft
to the sleeve through the key. It is then transmitted from the sleeve to the output
shaft through the key.
Advantages of Muff coupling
• It is the simplest form of coupling with only two parts viz. sleeve & key
• It has no projecting parts except the key head
• It has compact construction with small radial dimensions
Design of Muff Coupling
i) Calculate the diameter of each shaft by
Mt = (60 X 106 / 2 π n) kW and Ʈ = 16 Mt / π d3
ii) Calculate the dimensions of the sleeve by the following empirical relations
D = (2d + 13) mm and L = 3.5 d
Also, check the torsional shear stress induced in the sleeve by the equations
Ʈ = Mt r / J J = π (D4 – d4) / 32 ; r = D/2
iii) Determine the standard cross-section of flat sunk key from design data book. The
length of the key in each shaft is one-half of the length of the sleeve. Therefore
l = L/2
With these dimensions of key, check the shear and compressive stresses in the key by
equations
Ʈ = 2 Mt / d b l and σ c = 4 Mt / d h l
The shaft and key are made of plain carbon steel. The sleeve is usually made of grey
cast iron of Grade FG 200
Q1. Design a muff coupling to connect two steel shafts transmitting 25 kW power at 360
rpm. The shafts and key are made of plain carbon steel 30C8 (Syt = Syc = 400
N/mm2). The sleeve is made of grey cast iron FG 200 (Sut = 200 N/mm2) The factor
of safety is 4. For the sleeve, the factor of safety is 6 based on ultimate strength.
Q2. Design a split muff coupling to transmit 50 kW power at 12o rpm. The shafts, key
and coupling bolts are made of plain carbon steel 30C8 (Syt = 400 N/mm2) The yield
strength in compression is 15% of the tensile yield strength. The factor of safety for
shaft, key and bolts is 5. The number of clamping bolts is 8. The coefficient of friction
between sleeve halves and the shafts is 0.3.
i) Calculate the diameter of the input and output shafts
ii) Specify the length & outer diameter of sleeve halves
iii) Find out the diameter of clamping bolts assuming that the power is transmitted by
friction
iv) Specify bolt diameter using standard empirical relations
v) Specify the size of key & check the dimensions for shear and compression criteria
Clamp coupling (Compression coupling or split muff coupling)
It is a rigid type of coupling. In this coupling, the sleeve is made of two halves, which
are split along a plane passing through the axes of shafts. The two halves of the
sleeve are clamped together by means of bolts. The number of bolts can be four or
eight. They are always in multiples of four. The bolts are placed in recesses formed
in the sleeve halves.
i) Calculate the diameter of each shaft by the following equations
Mt = (60 X 106 / 2 π n) kW and Ʈ = 16 Mt / π d3
ii) Calculate the main dimensions of the sleeve halves by using empirical equations
D = 2.5 d and L = 3.5 d
The sleeve halves are made of grey cast iron of Grade FG 200
iii) Determine the standard cross-section of flat key from design data book. The length
of the key in each shaft is one-half of the length of the sleeve. Therefore
l = L/2
With these dimensions of the key, check the shear and compressive stresses in the key
by equations Ʈ = 2 Mt / d b l and σc = 4 Mt / d h l

iv) Calculate the diameter of clamping bolts by equations

P1 = 2 Mt / f d n and P1 = π d12 σt / 4
The coefficient of friction between the sleeve halves and the shaft is usually taken as
0.3
Rigid flange couplings
A flange coupling consists of two flanges – one keyed to the driving shaft and the other
to the driven shaft as shown in fig below
The two flanges are connected by means of four or six bolts arranged on a circle
concentric with axes of the shafts.
Power is transmitted from the driving shaft to the left side flange through the key. It is
then transmitted from the left side flange to the right side flange through the bolts.
Finally power is transmitted from the right side flange to the driven shaft through the key
There are two types of rigid flange couplings – unprotected & protected
Unprotected type Flange
Coupling

Protected type Flange

Coupling
Belt drive
Belts are used to transmit power between two shafts by means of friction. A belt drive
consists of three elements – driving and driven pulleys ace nd an endless belt, which
envelopes them.
Advantages of belt drive over other drives
i) Belt drives can transmit power over considerable distance between the axes driving
& driven shafts
ii) The operation of belt drive is smooth & silent
iii) They can transmit only a definite load, which if exceeded will cause the belt to slip
over the pulley, thus protecting the parts of the drive against overload
iv) They have the ability to absorb the shocks and damp vibration
Disadvantages of belt drive
i) Belt drives have large dimensions & occupy more space
ii) The velocity ratio is not constant due to belt slip
iii) They impose heavy loads on shafts and bearings
iv) Belt drives have comparatively short service life
 Belt Drive (Derivation)
Length of Open belt drive
L = 2 C + π(D+d)/2 + (D-d)2/4C
Length of Crossed belt drive
L = 2 C + π(D+d)/2 + (D+d)2/4C
C = centre distance
D = diameter of big pulley (mm)
d = diameter of small pulley (mm)
Belt Tensions P1 – mv2 / P2 – mv2 = ef α (for flat belt)
P1 – mv2 / P2 – mv2 = ef α / Sin(θ/2) (for crossed belt)
P1 = belt tension in the right side (N)
P2 = belt tension in the loose side (N)
m = mass of the one meter length of belt (kg/m)
v = belt velocity (m/s)
f = coefficient of friction
α = angle of wrap for belt (radians)
Θ = belt angle
 Condition for maximum power (Derivation)
The optimum velocity of the belt for maximum power transmission is
v = (Pi / 3m)1/2
Where, Pi = (P1 + P2) / 2

Q1. A leather belt transmitting 15 kW of power. The centre distance between the pulleys
is twice the diameter of the bigger pulley. The belt should operate at a velocity of 20
m/s approximately and the stresses in the belt should not exceed 2.25 N/mm2. The
density of leather is 0.95 g/cc and the coefficient is 0.35. The thickness of the belt is
5 mm. Calculate
i) The diameter of pulleys
ii) The length and width of the belt
iii) The belt tensions
Power Screws
Screw Jack
Springs
Spring is an elastic machine element which deflects under the action of the load &
returns to its original shape when the load is removed
There are three objectives for the design of the helical spring
i) It should posses sufficient strength to withstand the external load.
ii) It should have the required load deflection characteristics.
iii) It should not buckle under the external load.
Design of Helical Springs
i) Estimate the maximum spring force (P) and the corresponding required deflection (δ)
of the spring
ii) Select a suitable spring material and find out ultimate tensile strength (Sut) from the
data. Calculate the permissible shear stress for the spring wire by following
relationship
Ʈ = 0.3 Sut or 0.5 Sut
iii) Assume a suitable spring index (C). For industrial applications, the spring index varies
from 8 to 10
iv) Calculate the Wahl factor by
(4C – 1/ 4C – 4) + 0.651/ C
v) Determine wire diameter (d)
Ʈ = K (8 P C / π d2)
vi) Determine mean coil diameter (D) by D = C d
vii) Determine the number of active coils (N) by
δ = (8 P D3 N / G d4)
viii) Determine the number of inactive coils. Adding active & inactive coils, find out the
total number of coils (Nt)
ix) Determine the solid length of the spring as Nt d
x) Determine the actual deflection of the spring
δ = (8 P D3 N / G d4)
xi) Assume a gap of 0.5 to 2 mm between adjacent coils, when the spring is under the
action of maximum load. The total axial gap between coils is given as
total gap = (Nt – 1) gap between two adjacent coils
xiii) Determine the free length of the spring by
free length = solid length + total length + δ
xiv) Determine the rate of spring by
k = (G d4 / 8 D3 N)
Q1. Design a helical compression spring subjected to a maximum force of 1250 N. The
deflection of the spring corresponding to the maximum force should be
approximately 30 mm. The spring index can be taken as 6. The spring is made of
patented and cold drawn steel wire. The ultimate tensile strength and modulus of
rigidity of the spring material are 1090 and 81370 N/mm2 respectively. The
permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 50% of the ultimate
tensile strength. Calculate
i) Wire diameter
ii) Mean coil diameter
iii) Number of active coils
iv) Total number of coils
v) Free length of the spring
vi) Pitch of the coil
Draw a neat sketch of the spring showing various dimensions

Design of Leaf springs

Clutch
A clutch is a mechanical device which is used to connect or disconnect the source of
power from the remaining parts of the power transmission system at the will of the
operator.
In the operation of brake, the conditions are as follows:
i) Initial condition – one member such as the brake drum is rotating and the braking
member such as the brake shoe is at rest.
ii) Final condition – Both members are at rest and have no relative motion.

Classification of Clutch
i) Positive contact Clutches: In these clutches power transmission achieved by means
of interlocking of jaws or teeth. Advantage is positive engagement & once coupled
transmit large torque no slip
ii) Friction Clutches: Power transmission is achieved by means friction between
contacting surfaces
iii) Electromagnetic Clutches: Power transmission is achieved by means of magnetic
field
iv) Fluid Clutches & Coupling: Power transmission is achieved by means of hydraulic
pressure. Fluid coupling provides extremely smooth start & absorbs shock