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ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?
Chapter 8 - 2
Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile
Chapter 8 - 3
Example: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation
• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Chapter 8 - 4
Moderately Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface
s
• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) Chapter 8 - 5
Ductile vs. Brittle Failure
Chapter 8 - 6
Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate pt at which failure originated
Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. Chapter 8 - 8
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber
Chapter 8 - 9
Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack propagation
• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a
s m 2so K t so
t
t where
t = radius of curvature
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip
Chapter 8 - 10
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip
Chapter 8 - 11
Problem
Chapter 8 - 12
Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
so s
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = s
o
swmax 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 13
Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
• A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting” the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle plastic
Chapter 8 - 14
When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if above critical stress
1/ 2
i.e., sm > sc 2E s
sc
or Kt > Kc a
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack
– Kc = sc/s0
Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 16
0.5
Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Ys a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1 K c
sdesign amax
Y amax Ysdesign
amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture s
Chapter 8 - 17
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
Kc --failure stress = ?
• Use... sc
Y amax
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm
s c amax s
A
c amax
B
Answer: (sc )B 168 MPa
• Reducing flaw size pays off!
Chapter 8 - 18
Problem
Chapter 8 - 19
Loading Rate
e
TS
smaller
sy
e
Chapter 8 - 20
Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
Chapter 8 - 21
Chapter 8 - 22
Temperature
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
The Discovery of the Titanic.) "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
Sfat
safe
Adapted from Fig.
8.19(a), Callister 7e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 26
Fatigue Mechanism
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
K
m
dN
~ s a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
• s increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister 7e.
• crack gets longer (Fig. 8.21 is from D.J.
• loading freq. increases. Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Chapter 8 - 27
Improving Fatigue Life
1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
surface stress Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.
N = Cycles to failure
0 t
tertiary
primary
secondary
elastic
Chapter 8 - 30
Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
Qc
e s K 2s exp
n
activation energy for creep
strain rate RT (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Chapter 8 - 32
Creep Failure
• Failure: • Estimate rupture time
along grain boundaries. S-590 Iron, T = 800°C, s = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities 100
Adapted from
Fig. 8.32, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.32 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
applied
Stress, ksi
Trans. ASME, 74, 765
20
stress (1952).)
10
data for
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
1
12 16 20 24 28
Press, Inc.)
L(10 3 K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr
T ( 20 logtr ) L T ( 20 logtr ) L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 33
SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic s:
- cycles to fail decreases as s increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to fail decreases as s or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 34