ME8691

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

Manu Chandran
Assistant professor
School of mechanical engineering
 UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction to CAD CAM

Computer Aided Drafting/Design:

• Computer aided design is the technology concerned with the use of
computer systems to assist the creation, modification, analysisi and
optimization of design.
• CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve
the quality of design, improve communications through documentation,
and to create a database for manufacturing.
• CAD program/software is an electronic tool that enables you to make
quick and accurate drawings with the use of a computer.
• Computer drawings are neat, clean, highly presentable, and can be
modified easily.
• Computer-aided design (CAD) involves creating computer models defined
by geometrical parameters.
• The models typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-
dimensional representation of a part or a system of parts, which can be
readily altered by changing relevant parameters.
• CAD software enables engineers and architects to design, inspect and
manage engineering projects within an integrated graphical user interface.
• CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D)
space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.
• CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models or 2D drawings
of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering
process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength
and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing
methods of components.
• Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and
animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product
designs
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM):
• Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses geometrical design data to
control automated machinery.
• CAM systems are associated with computer numerical control (CNC) or
direct numerical control (DNC) systems
• Since both CAD and CAM use computer-based methods for encoding
geometrical data, it is possible for the processes of design and
manufacture to be highly integrated.
• Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) also known as Computer-aided
Modeling or Computer-aided Machining is the use of software to control
machine tools and related ones in the manufacturing of workpieces.
• Its primary purpose is to create a faster production process and
components and tooling with more precise dimensions and material
consistency, which in some cases, uses only the required amount of raw
material (thus minimizing waste), while simultaneously reducing energy
consumption.
• CAM is a subsequent computer-aided process after computer-aided
design (CAD) and sometimes computer-aided engineering (CAE), as the
model generated in CAD and verified in CAE can be input into CAM
software, which then controls the machine tool.
• CAM reduces waste and energy for enhanced manufacturing and
production efficiency via increased production speeds, raw material
consistency and more precise tooling accuracy.
• CAM also implements advanced productivity tools like simulation and
optimization to leverage professional skills
• CAM is often linked with CAD for more enhanced and streamlined
manufacturing, efficient design and superior machinery automation.
• The development of CAD and CAM and particularly the linkage between
the two overcame traditional NC shortcomings in expense, ease of use,
and speed by enabling the design and manufacture of a part to be
undertaken using the same system of encoding geometrical data.
• CAD/CAM gave the designer much more direct control over the
production process, creating the possibility of completely integrated
design and manufacturing processes.
Advantages:
• There are also other reasons why a company might make a conversion
from manual processes to CAD/CAM:
– Increased productivity
– Better quality
– Better communication
– Common database with manufacturing
– Reduced prototype construction casts
– Faster response to customers

• The emergence of CAD/CAM has had a major impact on

manufacturing
 Product cycle

• The product begins with a need which is identified based on customers’

and markets’ demands.
• The cycle through which the product goes from development to
retirement is called product life cycle.
• The product life cycle includes all activities starting from identification of
product to deliver the finished product to the customer.
• The product goes through two main processes from the idea
conceptualization to the finished product: The design process and the
manufacturing process.
Design process:
• The product cycle begins with the design process.
• Synthesis and analysis are the two main sub processes of the design
process
Synthesis:
• The philosophy, functionality, and uniqueness of the product arc all
determined during synthesis.
• During synthesis, a design takes the form of sketches and layout drawings that
show the relationship among the various product parts. These sketches and
drawings can be created using a CAD/CAM system or simply hand-drawn on
paper.
• They are used during brainstorming discussions among various design teams
and for presentation purposes.
Analysis:
• The analysis subprocess begins with an attempt to put the conceptual design
into the context of engineering sciences to evaluate the performance of the
expected product.
• This requires design modeling and simulation. An important aspect of analysis
is the "what if‘ questions that help us to eliminate multiple design choices and
find the best solution to each design problem.
• The outcome of analysis is the design documentation in the form of
engineering drawings (also known as blueprints).
Manufacturing Process:
• The manufacturing process begins with the process planning and ends
with the actual product.
• Process planning is considered the backbone or the manufacturing
process since it attempts to determine the most efficient sequence in
which to produce the product.
• A process planner must be aware of the various aspects of manufacturing
to plan properly.
• The planner typically works with the blueprints and may communicate
with the design team to clarify or request changes in the design to fit
manufacturing requirements.
• The outcome of the process planning is a production plan, tools
procurement, material order, and machine programming.
• Other special manufacturing needs such as design or jigs and fixtures or
inspection gages are planned
 Design process
• Design is the human power to conceive, plan and realize products that
serve human being in the accomplishment of any individual or collective
purpose.
• Design refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a
product, structure, sysytem or component.
• The design progress is is a step by step manner from identification of need
for the problem, a search for solution and development of chosen solution
to manufacture and test.
• The design process includes series of steps that engineers apply in making
functional products and processes
• The parts of the process often need to be repeated many times before
production of a product can start.
• The parts that get iterated and the number of such design cycles in any
given project can be highly changeable.
Shingley Model:
• It involves six steps
1. Recognition of need
• Realization of problem exists in the design or in the product
• Identification of some defect in a current machine design
• New product opportunity
2. Definition of problem
• Specification of the item to be designed
• Functional characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.
3. Synthesis
• Preliminary ideas are developed through research of similar product or
designs in use
4. Analysis and Optimization
• Suitability for the specified design constraints
• If not suitable or design fails to satisfy the constraints
• Then redesign or modified iteration continues until the proposed design
meet the specifications (or) until feasibility is achieved
• Then components, sub-assemblies or sub-systems are then synthesized into
the final overall system in a similar iterative manner.
5. Evaluation
• Prototyping
• Testing
• Quality
• Reliability testing
6. Presentation
• Documentation of the design through drawings, material specifications,
assembly lists, etc.
Pahl and Beitz Model:
1. Clarification of the task: Collection of information, constraints on the design.
2. Conceptual design: establishment of the functions to be included in the design,
3. Embodiment design: problems are resolved and weak aspects are eliminated
4. Detail design: The dimensions, tolerance, materials and form of individual
components of the design are specified in design for subsequent
manufacturing
 Sequential Engineering

• Sequential engineering is the term used to explain the method of

production in a linear system.
• The various steps are done one after another, with all attention and
resources focused on that single task.
• Sequential engineering is a system by which a group within an
organization works sequentially to create new products and services.
• The sequential engineering is a linear product design process during which
all stages of manufacturing operate in serial.
• Both process and product design run in serial and take place in the
different time
• Process and Product are not matched to attain optimal matching
• Decision making done by only group of experts
Sequential enginnerinng
 Concurrent Engineering

• In concurrent engineering, various tasks are handled at the same time,

and not essentially in the standard order
• This means that info found out later in the course can be added to earlier
parts, improving them, and also saving time
• Concurrent engineering is a method by which several groups within an
organization work simultaneously to create new products and services.
• The concurrent engineering is a non- linear product design process during
which all stages of manufacturing operate at the same time
• Both product and process design run in parallel and take place in the same
time.
• Process and Product are coordinated to attain optimal matching of
requirements for effective quality and delivery
• Decision making involves full team involvement
• It decreases product development time and also the time to market,
leading to improved productivity and reduced costs.
• Though initial implementation can be challenging, the competitive
advantage means it is beneficial in the long term.
• It removes the need to have multiple design reworks, by creating an
environment for designing a product right the first time round.
 Computer aided design

• CAD is the intersection of Computer Graphics, Geometric modeling and

Design tools
• The concepts of computer graphics and geometric modeling and must be
used innovatively to serve the design process
• CAD is the function of computer systems to support in the creation,
modification, analysis, or optimization of a design
• CAD software for design uses either vector-based graphics to explain the
objects of traditional drafting, or may also develop raster graphics showing
the overall look of designed objects.
• During the manual drafting of engineering drawings, the output of CAD
must convey information, like dimensions, materials, processes, and
tolerances.
• CAD is a significant industrial art used in many purposes, including
industrial and architectural design, shipbuilding, automotive, and
aerospace industries, and many more.
• CAD is also extensively used to create computer animation for special
effects in movies, and technical manuals, frequently called as Digital
Content Creation.
• CAD software packages provide the designer with a multi window
environment with animation which is regularly used in Digital Content
Creation.
• The animations using wire frame modeling helps the designer to see into
the interior of object and to observe the behaviors of the inner
components of the assembly during the motion.
CAD Tools:
• The CAD tools are mainly using for graphics applications and modeling.
• Aids such a color, grids, geometric modifiers and group facilitate structural
geometric models.
• Visualization is achieved through shaded components and animation
which focus design conceptualization, communication and interference
detection.
• Adding tolerances, tolerance analysis and investigating the effect of
manufacturing on the design can perform by utilizing CAD tools.
Uses of CAD:
• CAD is one of the tools used by designers and engineers and is used in
different ways depending on the profession of the customer and the type
of software.
• CAD is one of the Digital Product Development activities within the
Product Lifecycle Management practices with other tools, which are either
integrated modules or individual
• CAD is also used for the development of photo simulations that are
frequently necessary in the preparation of Environmental Impact Reports
• Parameters and constraints can be used to get the size, shape, and other
properties of the modeling elements.
• The features of the CAD system can be used for the several tools for
measurement; such as yield strength, tensile strength and electrical or
electro-magnetic properties
CAD system architecture:
• Computer architecture is a pattern describing how a group of software
and hardware technolog standards relate to form a computer system.
• In general, computer architecture refers to how a computer is designed
and what technologies it is compatible with.
• Computer architecture is likened to the art of shaping the needs of the
technology, and developing a logical design and standards based on needs
• Computer architecture is a pattern describing how a group of software
and hardware technology standards relate to form a computer system
• Computer architecture is likened to the art of shaping the needs of the
technology, and developing a logical design and standards based on needs.
• it describes the capabilities of a computer and its programming method in
a summary way, and how the internal organization of the system is
designed and executed to meet the specified facilities.
• Computer architecture engages different aspects, including instruction set
architecture design, logic design, and implementation
• An instruction set architecture is the interface between the software and
hardware and also can be observed as the programmer's view of the
machine
• Computers do not understand high level languages, if any, language
elements that translate directly into a machine's native op codes
 Computer graphics

• Computer Graphics is defined as creation, storage, and manipulation of

pictures and drawings by means of a digital computer

• It is an extremely effective medium for communication between people

and computers

• Computer graphics studies the manipulation of visual and geometric

information using computational techniques

• It focuses on the mathematical and computational foundations of image

generation and processing rather than purely aesthetic issues
• In Interactive Computer Graphics (ICG) the user interacts with the
compute and comprises the following important functions

• Modeling, which is concerned with the description of an object in terms of

its spatial coordinates, lines, areas, edges, surfaces, and volume

• Storage, which is concerned with the storage of the model in the memory
of the computer

• Manipulation, which is used in the construction of the model from basic

primitives in combination with Boolean algebra

• Viewing, in the case the computer is used to look at the model from a
specific angle and presents on its screen what it sees
Advantages:
• The object drawing can be denoted by its geometric model in
three dimensions.
• Accurate drawings can be made
• Sectional drawings can be easily created
• Modification of geometric model is easy
• Drawings can be reused
Applications:
• Illustration or design programs
• Presentation graphics software
• Animation software
• Cad software
• Image processing
 Co-ordinate systems

• Coordinate systems play an essential role in the graphics pipeline.

• In general there are two types of coordinate systems such as cartesion
and polar coordinate system.
• In cartesian coordinate system the axis are represented by linear distances
x,y,z and in polar coodinate sysytem uses angles.
• In a 2-D coordinate system the X axis generally points from left to right,
and the Y axis generally points from bottom to top. ( Although some
windowing systems will have their Y coordinates going from top to
bottom. )
• When we add the third coordinate, Z, we have a choice as to whether the
Z-axis points into the screen or out of the screen:
Left and right handed coordinate system:

• Right Hand Coordinate System (RHS)

Z is coming out of the page
Counterclockwise rotations are positive
if we rotate about the X axis : the rotation Y->Z is positive
if we rotate about the Y axis : the rotation Z->X is positive
if we rotate about the Z axis : the rotation X->Y is positive
• Left Hand Coordinate System (LHS)
Z is going into the page
Clockwise rotations are positive
if we rotate about the X axis : the rotation Y->Z is positive
if we rotate about the Y axis : the rotation Z->X is positive
if we rotate about the Z axis : the rotation X->Y is positive
• The important thing to note is what coordinate system is being used by
the package you are working with, both for the creation of models and the
displaying of them

• Multiple Coordinate System:

• In a typical graphics program, we may need to deal with a number of
different coordinate systems, and a good part of the work ( and the cause
of many headaches ) is the conversion of coordinates from one system to
another.
• World Coordinate System - Also known as the "universe" or sometimes
"model" coordinate system. This is the base reference system for the
overall model, ( generally in 3D ), to which all other model coordinates
relate.
• Object Coordinate System - When each object is created in a modelling
program, the modeller must pick some point to be the origin of that
particular object, and the orientation of the object to a set of model axes
• Hierarchical Coordinate Systems - Sometimes objects in a scene are
arranged in a hierarchy, so that the "position" of one object in the
hierarchy is relative to its parent in the hierarchy scheme, rather than to
the world coordinate system
• Viewpoint Coordinate System - Also known as the "camera" coordinate
system. This coordinate system is based upon the viewpoint of the
observer, and changes as they change their view.
• Model Window Coordinate System - Not to be confused with desktop
windowing systems ( MS Windows or X Windows ), this coordinate system
refers to the subset of the overall model world that is to be displayed on
the screen
 2D and 3D transformations
• A geometric transformation is an operation that modifies its shape, size,
position, orientation etc. with respect to its current configuration
operating on the vertices (position vectors).
• Some of the important 2D transformations include:
1. Translation
2. Scaling
3. Rotation
4. Reflection
5. Shear
6. Twist
• 2D translation
• Translation is nothing but moving an object across the screen from one
position to another
• The translation transformation positions the object to a new location.
• The translation is accomplished by adding the coordinates of each corner
point the distance through which the object is to moved
2D Rotation:
• Rotation refers to the movement an object in such a way that
the distance between a certain fixed point and any given point
of that body remains constant
• Rotation transformation techniques is commonly used in
rendering and animation tehniques
2D Scaling:
• Scaling is the transformation used to change, increase or
decrease, the size of an object
• Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original
coordinates of an object by the scaling factor Sx along x-
direction and Sy along y-direction
• Scaling factor is always positive, if scaling factor is less than 1, the object is
compressed; if more than 1, the object is stretched.
2D reflection:
• Reflection is a transformation in which the direction of one axis is reversed
• Reflection transformation produces a mirror image of an object
• The reflection transformation is useful in the construction of symmetric
objects. If the object is symmetric with respect to plane, only half of the
geometry is created and then the half model is copied by reflection to
develop the full model
3D transformation:
• A three-dimensional object has a three-dimensional geometry, and
therefore, it requires a three-dimensional coordinate transformation
• A right handed coordinate system is used to carry out a 3-D
transformation.
• The scaling and translation transformations are essentially the same as
twodimensional transformations
• However, the points matrix will have a non-zero 3rd column. Additionally,
the transformation matrices contain some non-zero values inthe third row
and third column.
• Translation
• In three-dimensional homogeneous coordinate representation, a point is
transformed from position P(x,y,z) to P’= (x’,y’,z’) this can be written as:
x’ = x+ tx
y’ = y+ ty
z’ = z+ tz
Parallel to one of the Coordinate Axis
• In special cases where an object is to be rotated about an axis that is
parallel to one of the coordinate axis,
 homogeneous coordinates

• The rotation of a point, straight line or an entire image on the screen,

about a point other than origin, is achieved by first moving the image until
the point of rotation occupies the origin, then performing rotation, then
finally moving the image to its original position.
• The moving of an image from one place to another in a straight line is
called a translation
• . A translation may be done by adding or subtracting to each point, the
amount, by which picture is required to be shifted.
• translation of point by the change of coordinate cannot be combined with
other transformation by using simple matrix application.
• Such a combination is essential if we wish to rotate an image about a point
other than origin by translation, rotation again translation.
• To combine these three transformations into a single transformation,
homogeneous coordinates are used.
• In homogeneous coordinate system, two-dimensional coordinate positions
(x, y) are represented by triple-coordinates.
• Homogeneous coordinates are generally used in design and construction
applications. Here we perform translations, rotations, scaling to fit the
picture into proper position
• For two-dimensional geometric transformation, we can choose
homogeneous parameter h to any non-zero value.
• For our convenience take it as one. Each two-dimensional position is then
represented with homogeneous coordinates (x, y, 1).
• Line drawing
• A line connects two points. It is a basic element in graphics. To
draw a line, it requires two points between which you can
draw a line
• Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm is the simple line
generation algorithm which is explained step by step here.
• Step 1 − Get the input of two end
points (X0,Y0)(X0,Y0) and (X1,Y1)(X1,Y1).
• Step 2 − Calculate the difference between two end points.
dx = X1 - X0
dy = Y1 - Y0
• Step 3 − Based on the calculated difference in step-2, you
need to identify the number of steps to put pixel. If dx > dy,
then you need more steps in x coordinate; otherwise in y
coordinate.
• Step 4 − Calculate the increment in x coordinate and y coordinate.
• Xincrement = dx / (float) steps;
• Yincrement = dy / (float) steps;
• Step 5 − Put the pixel by successfully incrementing x and y coordinates
accordingly and complete the drawing of the line
Clipping:
• Clipping is the process of determining the visible portions of a drawing
lying within a window. In clipping each graphic element of the display is
examined to determine whether or not it is completely inside the window,
completely outside the window or crosses a window boundary.
• Portions outside the boundary are not drawn
• If the element of a drawing crosses the boundary the point of inter-section
is determined and only portions which lie inside are drawn.
Polygon clipping:
• Convert a polygon into one or more polygons that form the intersection of
the original with the clip window
viewing transformation:
• The viewing transformation converts objects from their 3-dimensional
camera-space coordinates into the appropriate 2-dimensional raster-space
coordinates.
• The camera coordinate system is a coordinate system with the camera at
the origin, looking out over the positive z axis.
• It is, essentially, the scene from the camera's point of view. The raster
coordinate system is the space of the pixels on the monitor.
• Connecting these two coordinate systems there is a special coordinate
system known as the screen coordinate system
• The screen coordinate system is, conceptually, the same as the film plane
of a camera.
• it is usually best to consider both the screen coordinate system and the
raster coordinate system to be two-dimensional, even though we know
that Render Man can output depth information.
• the viewing transformation has lots of controls, but typically they are not
all used together. Rather, a couple important controls are set and the rest
are let to default to their “logical” values.
 Brief introduction to CAD and CAM

• CAD/CAM is a term which means computer-aided design and computer-

aided manufacturing.
• It is the technology concerned with the use of digital computers to
perform certain functions in design and production
• This technology is moving in the direction of greater integration of design
and manufacturing, two activities which have traditionally been treated as
distinct and separate functions in a production firm.
• Ultimately, CAD/CAM will provide the technology base for the computer-
integrated factory of the future.
• Computerassistancewhileadesignerconvertshisorherideasandknowledgein
toamathematicalandgraphicalmodelrepresentedinacomputer.
• Use of computers systems to plan, manage and control the operations of
a manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect computer interface
with plant’s production resources
• CAD/CAM involves all the processes of conceptualizing , designing,
analyzing, prototyping and actual manufacturing with computer’s
assistance
• Latest techniques of geometric modeling (Feature base or parametric
modeling) and manufacturing like rapid prototyping (RP) have bridged the
gap between product conceptualization and product realization
• CAD/CAM-
Keytoimprovemanufacturingproductivityandthebestapproachformeetingth
ecriticaldesignrequirements
• CAD/CAMsoftwareprovidesengineerswiththetoolsneededtoperformtheirte
chnicaljobsefficientlyandfreethemfromthetediousandtime-
consumingtasksthatrequirelittleornotechnicalexpertise.
• CAD/CAMsoftwarespeedsthedesignprocess,thereforeincreasingproductivit
y,innovationandcreativityofdesigners
• CAD/CAMistheonlymeantomeetthenewtechnologicaldesignandproduction
requirementsofincreasedaccuracyanduniformity
Manufacturing Planning:
• Planning is an essential part of every manufacturer’s life and the key to
effective inventory and resource management.
• even engineer-to-order and lean make-to-order manufacturers must plan
for materials and resources (equipment, capacity, people/skills) to be
available to satisfy customer requirements.
• Manufacturing planning is a coordinated process involving demand
management, forecasting, master scheduling, material planning (MRP),
and capacity planning, fully integrated with operational management
applications including production control, inventory management, and
procurement.
• Planning is all about turning customer demand, a combination of real
orders and forecasted demand, into production schedules and planned
purchases mapped out in time to assure that the materials, parts and
products are available when needed but only in the quantity needed and
at the time needed to keep the plant operating efficiently with minimal
excess inventory.
• Execution applications – in production and purchasing – ensure that all
activities are coordinated and work is completed on time, maximizing the
efficient use of resources.
• The result is on-time shipment, happy customers, and minimal costs. This
coordinated planning and execution ‘closed loop’ also keeps things
coordinated in the face of changing demand, unexpected disruptions and
other challenges
Manufacturing control :
• Material requirement planning and netting
• Manage your production and your purchases according to the Material
Requirement Planning and Netting.
• Synoptic ERP takes into account the expressed requisitions and the
situation of the inventory before suggesting new manufactures or
purchases demands.
• You can customize the material requirement planning and choose
between automation and proposal of actions to lead.
• Planning and scheduling
• Synoptic ERP integrates functions for forward planning of infinite loading.
The load schedule is a powerful tool of macro planning that allows you to
visualize the loading and the capacity of resources.
• The function of scheduling as exact as possible is achieved thanks to
critical ratio (parameterizable according to your business).
• Graphical reports concerning the progress and the delay of production
enable you to be proactive and to meet the deadlines.
• Data acquisition in workshop
• Synoptic ERP offers a real-time tool for data acquisition in workshop.
Thanks to bar-code readers or to touch-sensitive screens, you control in
real-time the counting concerning the manufacturing: past time on
manufacturing, number of manufactured parts, quantity of scrap, reason
and duration of stopping..
Recovering of data on lines of production
• It's possible to interface Synoptic ERP with the machines of production.
You can automatically regain the following data: real past time,
manufactured quantity, quantity of scrap, duration of stopping, Overall
Equipment Effectiveness (OEE).
Introduction to CAD/CAM:
• Throughout the history of our industrial society, many inventions have
been patented and whole new technologies have evolved
• Perhaps the single development that has impacted manufacturing more
quickly and significantly than any previous technology is the digital
computer
• Computer-aided design(CAD) is defined as the application of computers
and graphics software to aid or enhance the product design from
conceptualization to documentation
• CAD is most commonly associated with the use of an interactive computer
graphics system, referred to as a CAD system. Computer-aided design
systems are powerful tools and in the mechanical design and geometric
modeling of products and components
• There are several good reasons for using a CAD system to support the
engineering design function:
• To increase the productivity
• To improve the quality of the design
• To uniform design standards
• To create a manufacturing data base
• To eliminate inaccuracies caused by hand-copying of drawings and
inconsistency between drawings
• Computer-aided manufacturing(CAM) is defined as the effective use
computer technology in manufacturing planning and control
• CAM is most closely associated with functions in manufacturing
engineering, such as process and production planning, machining,
scheduling, management, quality control, and numerical control(NC) part
programming
• Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing are often
combined CAD/CAM systems
• This combination allows the transfer of information from the design into
the stage of planning for the manufacturing of a product, without the
need to reenter the data on part geometry manually
• The database developed during CAD is stored; then it is processed further,
by CAM, into the necessary data and instructions for operating and
controlling production machinery, materialhandling equipment, and
automated testing and inspection for product quality
CAD/CAM concepts :
CAD/CAM Software
• Software allows the human user to turn a hardware configuration into a
powerful design and manufacturing system. CAD/CAM software falls into
two broad categories,2-D and 3-D, based on the number of dimensions are
called 2-D representations of 3-D objects is inherently confusing.
• Equally problem has been the inability of manufacturing personnel to
properly read and interpret complicated 2-D representations of objects.
• 3-D software permits the parts to be viewed with the 3-D planes-
height,width, and depth-visible. The trend in CAD/CAM is toward 3-D
representation of graphic images.
• Such representation approximate the actual shape and appearance of the
object to be produced; therefore, they are easier to read and understand.
• CAD/CAM Hardware:
• The hardware part of a CAD/CAM system consists of the following
components ⑴ one or mare design workstations, ⑵ digital computer, ⑶
plotters and other output devices, and⑷ storage devices.
• In addition, the CAD/CAM system would have a communicatio interface to
permit transmission of data to and from other computer systems, thus
enabling some of the benefits of computer integration
• The workstation is the interface between computer and user in the CAD
system.The design of the CAD workstation and its available features have
an important influence on the convenience
• The workstation must include a digital computer with a high-speed control
processing unit(CPU). It contains require a and logic/arithmetic section for
the system
• The most widely used secondary storage medium in CAD/CAM is the hard
disk, floppy diskette, or a combination of both
Applications of CAD/CAM:
• The emergence of CAD/CAM has had a major impact on manufacturing, by
standardizing product development and by reducing design effort, tryout,
and prototype work; it has made possible significantly reduced costs and
improved productivity.
• Programming for NC, CNC, and industrial robots;
• Design of dies and molds for casting
• Design of tools and fixtures and EDM electrodes
• Process planning and scheduling
• There are 4 different types of productions which are most commonly
used.
• Which type of production should be used by the company depends on the
type of product being manufactured, the demand of the product as well as
the supply of raw materials.
• Taking these factors into consideration, below are the 4 types of
Production.
1) Unit or Job type of production:
• This type of production is most commonly observed when you produce
one single unit of a product
2) Batch type of Production
• It is one of the types of production most commonly used in consumer
durables, FMCG or other such industries where there are large variety of
products with variable demands.
• Batch production takes place in batches. The manufacturer already
knows the number of units he needs to a manufacturer and they are
manufactured in one batch.
3) Mass Production or Flow production:
• Mass production is also known as flow production or assembly line
production. It is one of the most common types of products used in
the automobile industry and is also used in industries where continuous
production is required.
• An Assembly line or mass production plant typically focus on
specialization. There are multiple workstations installed and the assembly
line goes through all the workstations turn by turn.
• The work is done in a specialized manner and each workstation is
responsible for one single type of work
4) Continuous production or Process production:
• There is a lot of confusion between mass production and continuous
production. It can be differentiated by a single element. The amount of
mechanical work involved.
• In Mass production, both machines and humans work in tandem.
However, in continuous production, most of the work is done by machines
rather than humans.
• In continuous production, the production is continuous,24×7 hours, all
days in a year.
Manufacturing models and Metrics :
Production Concepts and Mathematical Models
• Production rate, Rp
• Production capacity, PC
• Utilization, U
• Availability, A
• Manufacturing lead time, MLT
• Work-in-progress, WIP
• Operation Cycle Time
Typical cycle time for a production operation:
• Tc = To + Th + Tth
• where, Tc = cycle time
• To = processing time for the operation.
• Th = handling time (e.g. loading and unloading the production
• machine).
• Tth = tool handling time (e.g. time to change tools).
• Production Rate
• Batch production:
• batch time Tb = Tsu + QTc
• Average production time per work unit Tp = Tb / Q
• Production rate, Rp = 60/ Tp (pieces/hr)
• Utilization and Availability
• Utilization:
• where Q = Quantity actually produced and PC = plant capacity
• Availability:
• Where, MTBF = Mean time between failures and
• MTTR = mean time to repair
• Availability - MTBF and MTTR Defined
 Mathematical models of Production Performance

• Manufacturing lead time

• divide the activities in production into two main categories, operations
and non operation elements.
• An operation on a product (or work part) takes place when it is at the
production machine.
• The non operation elements are the handling, storage, inspections, and
other sources of delay
• A setup procedure is generally required to prepare each production
machine for the particular product. The setup typically includes arranging
the workplace and installing the tooling and fixturing required for the
product.
• Production rate:
• The production rate for an individual manufacturing process or assembly
operation is usually expressed as an hourly rate
• The rate will be symbolized as Rp. Again we will begin with the batch
production case and then generalize to the job shop and mass-production
cases.
• Components of the operation time:
• The operation time is the time an individual work part spends on a
machine, but not all of this time is productive
• . Operation time for a machining operation is composed of three elements
: the actual machining time Tm the workpiece handling time Th and any
tool handling time per workpiece Tth
• The tool handling time represents all the time spent in changing tools
when they wear out, changing from one tool to the next for successive
operations performed on a turret lathe, changing between the drill bit and
tap in a drill-and-tap sequence performed at one drill press, and so on.
• Capacity:
• The term capacity, or plant capacity, is used to define the maximum rate of
output that a plant (or other production facility) is able to produce under a
given set of assumed operating conditions. It is closely related to
production rate
• Capacity for a production plant is usually measured in terms of the types
of output produced by the plant
• Quantitative measures of plant capacity can be developed based on the
production models derived earlier
• Utilization and availability:
• The term availability is sometimes used as a measure of reliability for
equipment. It is especially germane for automated production equipment.
Availability is defined using two other reliability terms, the mean time
between failures (MTBF) and the mean time to repair (MTTR)
• Work-in-process
Work-in-process (WIP) is the amount of product currently located in the
factory that is either being processed or is tween processing operations.
WIP is inventory that is in the state of being transformed from raw
material to finished product.