SKELETAL

SYSTEM
ZARAH ALASKA-VILLALON
Instructor
• 206 adulthood
• 270 at birth

• Bones and Ligaments

• Ligaments: fibrous bands

that help hold the various
bones together
• Bones: rigid, mineralized
structures that perform
major roles in the body.

• Overall stability of the

body’s internal environment.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• Functions of Bone
• Types of Bones
• Bone Tissue
• Bone Marrow
• Bone and Regulation of Blood Calcium
Levels
• Development of Bone
• Bone Fractures
• Bone Remodeling
FUNCTIONS OF BONE
1. Support
• Supporting framework; contribute to the shape,
alignment, and positioning of the body parts.
• Held in place by ligaments, muscles.
2. Protection
• Hard bony “boxes” serve to protect the delicate
structures they enclose.
• Skull—brain; Rib cage—lungs and heart
3. Movement
• Levers; as muscles contract and shorten, they pull
on bones producing movement at a joint.
FUNCTIONS OF BONE
4. Mineral storage
• Major reservoir for calcium, phosphorous.
• Homeostasis of blood calcium concentration
Blood calcium

Calcium moves rapidly from blood to bones

Blood calcium concentration decreases

Normal level of Calcium

5. Hematopoiesis
• By red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
• In adult, located at the epiphyses of long bones, in the
flat bones of the skull, pelvis, sternum, and ribs
TYPES OF BONE
• Long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones,
sesamoid bones
• Size and shape and appearance vary according to the
role of each bone in the skeleton.
• Bear great weight, protective function, delicate support
• Different types of bone tissue: Compact bone and
Cancellous bone
• Compact bone: dense and solid in appearance
• Cancellous bone/ Spongy bone/ Trabecular bone:
open space with a network of needle-like crossbeams
TYPES OF BONE

Short bones

Irregular bones

Flat bones

Long bones Sesamoid bones

TYPES OF BONE
• Long bones
• Femur of the thigh, humerus of the arm, radius, ulna, tibia,
fibula, metacarpal, metatarsal, and phalanges
• Short bones
• Carpal and Tarsal bones
• Flat bones
• Certain bones of the skull, scapula, ribs, sternum,

• Irregular bones
• Vertebral bones and facial bones
• Sesamoid bones
• one that consistently appear—patella (largest sesamoid bone)
Parts of a Long Bone Both ends of a long bone; Bulbous
shape; for muscle attachment;
spongy bone-filled with a soft
EPIPHYSIS connective tissue—red marrow.
Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the
articular or joint surfaces of epiphyses.
Marrow cavity; A tube-like hollow space in the
diaphysis of a long bone. Filled with connective
tissue rich in fat—yellow marrow.
Thin fibrous membrane that lines the medullary
cavity. Has various types of bone cells and the
stem cells that produce them.

Main shaft-like portion. Hollow

DIAPHYSIS cylindrical shape, thick compact bone for
its function to provide strong support.

Dense, white fibrous membrane that covers bone

except at joint surfaces. Contains bone-forming and
bone-destroying cells and blood vessels that become
incorporated into bones during their initial growth
or remodelling and repair. Important for bone
formation.
Parts of a Flat Bone

• External table (compact bone)

• Internal table (compact bone)
• Diploe (cancellous bone)
• Red marrow fills the spaces of the cancellous bone.
BONE TISSUE
• Osseous tissue
• Cells, fiber, extracellular material or matrix
• Its extracellular components are hard and calcified.

• COMPOSITION OF BONE MATRIX

• 2/3 Inorganic salts: 85% hydroxyapatite (rocklike crystals of
calcium and phosphate), 10% calcium carbonate, magnesium,
sodium, sulphate, and fluoride.
• 1/3 Organic Matrix: collagenous fibers and ground substance
• Chondroitin sulphate: helps cartilage remain compressible
and elastic; and
• Glucosamine: cartilage formation, maintenance, and repair.
• Compact—hard; dense; found near the surface where
strength is required. (Tissue)
• Spongy (cancellous)—mesh-like; found in ends of long
bones and center of flat bones. (Tissue)
• Marrow—loose connective tissue that fills cavities of bone.
• Red—produces formed elements of blood.
• Yellow—made up of fatty tissue—has no blood
production function.
• Periosteum—connective tissue around a bone.
• Endosteum—inner lining of bones.
• Haversian canal—duct in bone that contains blood
vessels.
• Osteocytes— mature bone cells that maintain the bone
Osteons-
structural units

*Lamellae
*Lacunae
*Canaliculi
*Central canal

There are NO
osteons in
Cancellous bone
*Trabeculae
Bone cells are
found within the
trabeculae
Types of Bone Cells
 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
 Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells
 Osteoclasts
 Bone-destroying cells; bone-reabsorbing cells
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
 Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
Bone Remodeling
• A combined action of osteoblasts (bone forming cells) and
osteoclasts (bone destroying cells)
• Osteoblasts deposit bone on the external bone surface
• (like a brick layer)
• Osteoclasts break down bone from the inside
• (like a sculptor)
Bone Marrow
• A type of soft diffuse connective tissue called myeloid tissue
• Site for production of blood cells; found in medullary cavity;
• Red marrow
• Yellow marrow
Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels
Bone Growth and Development
• Bone formation (ossification) begins six weeks after fertilization.
• Continues through adolescence (some parts do not stop growing until
ages 18 to 25).
• Bone growth increases at puberty with the increase of the sex
hormone.
• While the bone lengthens, it also grows in diameter due to the
formation of cell layers on the outer surface of bone, and the erosion
of the cell layers beneath.
• 2 types of ossification = endochondral and intramembranous
• Bones become thinner and weaker as a normal process of aging.
• Reduction in bone mass begins to occur between ages 30 and 40.
• Once bone mass reduction begins:
• Females lose approximately 8% of bone mass every decade.
• Males lose approximately 3% of bone mass every decade.
• Osteoporosis results from bones becoming so thin they can no longer withstand
normal stress.
Intramembranous Ossification
• “bone formation within fibrous membrane”
• Flat bones of the skull
• Groups of osteogenic stem cells within the membrane
differentiate into osteoblast—clusters of osteoblast:
ossification centers
• They secrete matrix material and collagenous fibrils
• Golgi apparatus:mucopolysaccharide
• ER: collagen
• Mucopolysaccharide accumulate around each osteoblast
Endochondral Ossification
• “bone formation in cartilage”
• INTERSTITIAL GROWTH
• 1. Cartilage develops a periosteum
• 2. Enlarges and produces a ring or collar of bone.
• 3. Bone is deposited by osteoblast
• 4. Cartilage begin to calcify
• 5. Primary Ossification center established
• 6. Endochondral ossification progresses from diaphysis
toward each epiphysis
Endochondral Ossification
• 1. Secondary ossification center appears on the epiphysis
• 2. Bone growth proceeds toward the diaphysis from epiphysis
Long Bone Formation and Growth
Bone Remodeling
1. Osteoclasts in the endosteum that
surrounds a blood vessel demineralize a
cone or tube
2. Hollow filled with collagenous fibers
3. Osteoblasts forms layer upon layer
(lamellae)
The Axial Skeleton
The Cranium
• Bony structure that encases and protects the brain.
• 8 bones
• Frontal Bone ~ forehead/upper part of the bony
structure surrounding the eyes.
The Skull
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Human Skull, Inferior View

Figure 5.9
The Cranium
• Parietal Bone ~ upper sides of the head and
the roof of the cranial cavity (top of the head)
The Skull
The Cranium
• Temporal Bones ~ sides of the head, close to ears.
• Commonly called the temples
• Includes the external auditory meatus
• Opening for the ear
• Includes the zygomatic process
• Part of the cheekbone
The Skull
The Cranium
• Occipital Bone ~ back and base of the cranium
• Includes the foramen magnum
• Foramen means hole
• Large hole for the brainstem/spinal cord
The Skull
The Cranium
• Sphenoid Bone ~ forms sides of cranium and parts of orbits
of the eyes
• Butterfly shaped
• Includes Sella Turcica (Turk’s Saddle)
• Where pituitary gland sits
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Cranium
• Ethmoid Bone ~ irregularly shaped bone located between
the eye orbits
• Major supporting bone of the nasal cavity
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Facial Bones
• Mandible ~ the lower jaw bone
• Carries the lower teeth
• The anterior portion forms the chin
• Only freely movable joint in the skull
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Facial Bones
• Maxilla ~ Upper jaw
• Two bones fused together
• Roof of the mouth
• Also form parts of the nasal cavity and eye
orbits
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Facial Bones

• Palatine Bones~ form the posterior part of

the hard palate and the floor of the nasal
cavity.
• Failure of the palatine and/or maxillary
bones to fuse causes a cleft palate.
Human Skull, Inferior View

Figure 5.9
The Facial Bones
• Zygomatic Bones ~ the cheekbones
• Also forms a part of the orbits of the eyes
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Facial Bones
• Other Facial Bones

• Lacrimal Bones (2) ~ inner wall of eye sockets

• Nasal Bones (2) ~ bridge of nose
• Vomer ~ nasal septum
• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Fetal Skull
 The fetal skull is
large compared
to the infants
total body length

Figure 5.13

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Fontanelles – fibrous
membranes connecting the
cranial bones
 Allow the brain
to grow
 Convert to bone within 24
months after birth

Figure 5.13

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 U shaped

 Found in the upper neck

 The only bone that does not

articulate with another bone

 Serves as a moveable base

for the tongue

Figure 5.12
Hyoid Bone
Middle Ear
• 3 Tiny bones ~ transmit vibrations
• All derived from Latin words
• Malleus (hammer)
• Incus (anvil)
• Stapes (stirrup)
• Smallest bone in the body
The Vertebral Column
• The backbone or spine
• Consists of 26 bones called vertebrae
The Vertebral Column
 Vertebrae separated by
intervertebral discs (act as
shock absorbers)
 The spine has a normal
curvature
 Each vertebrae is given a
name according to its location

Figure 5.14

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.28
Vertebral column
• C1-C7 ~ in the neck
region
• 7 cervical vertebrae
• T1-T12 ~ located in
the chest region
• 12 thoracic
vertebrae
• L1-L5 ~ located in
the lower back
• 5 lumbar vertebrae
Vertebral column
• Sacrum ~ curved bone of the
lower back (posterior wall of the
pelvis)
• fused sacral vertebrae
• 5 vertebrae at birth
• Coccyx ~ the tailbone
• 4 vertebrae at birth
Vertebral Column
• The vertebrae become larger
as the vertebral column
descends…..WHY?
• Vertebral foramen ~ opening
for spinal cord.
• What is the opening for the
spinal cord in the skull
called?
The Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)
 The chest region
 Forms a cage to
protect major organs
 Composed of
sternum, ribs and
thoracic vertebrae.

Figure 5.19a
Thoracic Cage
• Sternum ~ breastbone.
• Dagger-shaped bone located
along the midline of the
anterior chest.
Thoracic Cage
• Ribs ~ 12 pairs of ribs attach
posteriorly to the thoracic
vertebrae
• True ribs ~ first 7 pair
• False ribs ~ last 5 pairs
The Appendicular Skeleton

 Limbs (appendages)
 Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
 Pelvic girdle

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Appendicular Skeleton

Figure 5.6c
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
 Composed of two bones
 Clavicle – collarbone
 Scapula – shoulder blade
 These bones allow the upper limb to
have exceptionally free movement
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
Bones of the Upper Limb

 The arm is formed by a

single bone
 Humerus
 Head of humerus allows
for rotation

Figure 5.21a, b
Bones of the Upper Limb

• The forearm
has two bones
• Ulna
• Radius

Figure 5.21c
Radius
• Radius ~ locate on the
lateral or thumb side when
the palm of the hand is
facing forward.
Ulna
• Ulna~ the longer of the two
forearm bones.
• Located on the medial or
little finger side of the
forearm.
Bones of the Upper Limb

 The hand
 Carpals – wrist
 Metacarpals –
palm
 Phalanges –
fingers
Figure 5.22
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
 Composed of two coxal bones (hip bones)
 Composed of three pair of fused bones
 Ilium
 Ischium
 Pubis
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the
pelvis
 Protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine
The Pelvis
Gender Differences of the Pelvis
 Bones of the Lower Limbs
 The thigh has
one bone
 Femur – thigh
bone

Figure 5.35a, b

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Bones of the Lower Limb
• Patella ~ knee cap
• Triangular bone located
within a tendon that passes
over the knee.
 Bones of the Lower Limbs
 The leg has
two bones
 Tibia ~ shin
bone
 larger
 Fibula
 Long and
thin
Figure 5.35c

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Bones of the Lower Limbs

 The foot
 Tarsal (7)–
ankle
 Metatarsals
(5)–
sole/instep
 Phalanges
(14) – toes Figure 5.25
Joints
• A place where any two or more bony parts join together; also
called an articulation.
• Held together by bands of connective tissue called ligaments.
Functional Classification of Joints

 Synarthroses – immovable joints

 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable
joints
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
Structural Classification of Joints

 Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly moveable
 Synovial joints
 Freely moveable
Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue –
synarthrosis or largely immovable.

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Cartilaginous Joints – mostly
amphiarthrosis
 Bones connected by cartilage
 Examples
 Pubic
symphysis
 Intervertebral
joints

Figure 5.27b, c

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Synovial Joints
 Articulating
bones are
separated by a
joint cavity
 Synovial fluid
is found in the
joint cavity
 Reinforced by
ligaments Figure 5.27f–h

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Synovial Joint
6 Types of Synovial Joints
• Hinge joint
• Movement is like two boards joined together by a hinge
• Movement in one direction
• Elbow, knees, fingers
Types of Synovial Joints
• Ball and Socket Joint
• When ball-shaped end of one bone fits into the cup-shaped socket of
another
• Bones can move in many directions
• Shoulder, hip
Types of Synovial Joints
• Pivot Joint
• Allows for rotation around the length of a bone.
• Allows only for rotation
• Head (side to side “no” action)
Types of Synovial Joints
• Saddle Joint
• When the surfaces of both articulation bones are saddle-shaped
• Concave/convex
• Thumb
• Wide range of motion
Types of Synovial Joints
• Gliding Joint
• Interaction of flat surfaces of articulating bones
• Limited but complex movement
• Wrist, ankle
Types of Synovial Joints
• Condyloid Joint
• Oval-shaped articular surface of one bone fits into the oval-shaped
depression of another
• Mandible, knuckles
Homeostatic Imbalances

Osteomalacia
•“Rickets” of adults.
•Due to a lack of vitamin D.
•Calcium is not deposited in the bones.
•Bones become brittle.
Homeostatic Imbalances
Osteoporosis
•Bone reabsorption is greater than bone deposition.
•Due to any of the following:
•Lack of estrogen in women.
•Lack of exercise to stress the bones.
•Inadequate intake of calcium and phosphorus.
•Abnormalities of vitamin D metabolism.
•Loss of muscle mass.
 Age Related Dysfunctions
Arthritis:

Osteoarthritis- 90% of pop. By age 40

chronic inflammation of articular cartilage
can be normal age-dependent change
can also be pathology due to ?
Age-related changes
decrease blood supply
trauma
Osteoarthritis
Osteoporosis

Decline in Bone Density

Bone Resorption > Bone Deposition

Increase Risk for Fracture

compression fractures of vertebrae
hip fractures

Role of calcium, vitamin D, estrogen, exercise

Calcitonin vs. Parathyroid Hormone
Osteoporosis
 Spinal
Curvatures
• The spine, or back bone, are made up of small bone
(vertebrae) stacked--along with discs--one of the top of
another.
• A healthy spine when viewed from the side it has a gentle
curves to it. The curves help the spine to absorbed stress
from body movement and gravity.
Three main types of spine curvature
disorder
Lordosis curves significantly
inward at the lower back.
 Kyphosis an abnormally rounded upper
back (more than 50 degrees of curvatures)
Scoliosis sideways curved to their spine.
The curved is often S-shaped or C-shaped.
NORMA SCOLIOSI
KYPHOSIS LORDOSI
L
S S
 What causes spine curvatures?
The following conditions can cause lordosis.

• ACHONDROPLASIA- a disorder in which bones do not

grow normally, resulting in the short stature associated with
dwarfism.
• SPONDYLOLISTHESIS-a condition in which the vertebrae,
usually in the lower back, slips forward.
• OSTEOPOROSIS- a condition in which vertebrae become
fragile and can be easily broken(compression fractures).
• OBESITY- or being extremely over weight.
 LORDOSIS
SYMPTOMS:
• Appearing swayback with the
buttocks more pronounced.
• Having a large gap between
the lower back and the floor
when lying on your back on a
hard surface that does charge
when you bend forward.
• Back pain and discomfort
• Problems moving certain ways
 Treatment for Lordosis
• Medication to relieve pain and swelling.
• Exercise and physical therapy to increase muscle strength
and flexibility
• Wearing a back brace
• Weight loss
• Surgery
Wearing a back brace
 KYPHOSIS
Condition that can cause Kyphosis:
• POOR POSTURE or slouching (postural kyphosis)
• ARTHRITIS
• OSTEOPOROSIS
• SPINA BIFIDA- a birth defect in which the spinal colon of
the fetus does not close completely during the development
inside the womb.
• SPINE INFECTIONS
• SPINE TUMORS
Symptoms of kyphosis are usually
visible in nature and include:
• Bending forward of the head compared to the rest of the
body.
• Hump or curve to the upper back
• Leaning toward one side.
• Postural kyphosis does bot typically cause back pain;
however physical activity and long periods of standing and
sitting can cause discomfort people with Scheuermann’s
kyphosis.
 SCOLIOSIS
SYMPTOMS
• Uneven shoulder blades with one being higher than the
other.
• An uneven waist oh hip.
• Leaning toward one side.
 Treatment for Kyphosis
• Exercise and anti- inflammatory medication to ease pain or
discomfort
• Wearing a back brace
• Surgery to correct severe spine curvature and congenital
kyphosis
• Exercise and physical therapy to increase strength
Treatment for Scoliosis may
include:
• OBSERVATION. If there is a slight curve your doctor may
choose to check your back every four to six months to see if
the curve get worse.
• BRACING. Depending on the degree of the curve, a back
brace is sometimes prescribed for kids and adolescents who
are still growing. Bracing can help prevent the curve from
getting worse.
• SURGERY. If the curve is severe and is getting worse,
surgery is sometimes needed.
• BODY CASTING. A cast is placed from the shoulders to the
lower trunk while the child is under anesthesia. It is
replaced every few months for up to 3 years. This is usually
reserved for young children when a scoliosis curve looks like
it will get worse as they grow.

* Exercise programs, Chiropractic treatment, electrical

stimulation, and nutritional supplements have not been
proven to prevent the worsening of the scoliosis. It is still
ideal to keep as much as strength and flexibility to maintain
normal function. This may require more effort and attention
in some one with scoliosis.