A

MATH 7
Differential
Equations
Prepared by:
Engr. Mark Joseph Bugarin
CHAPTER
Introduction to
Differential Equations
Introduction to Differential Equations
SECTION 1 DEFINITIONS
are equations involving derivatives of one

or more dependent variables with respect
to one or more independent variables.
𝑑2 𝑦 2
2
− 4𝑥𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
3 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 +𝑄 − 𝑅 sin 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
𝜕2𝑚 𝜕2𝑚
2
+ 2 =𝑚
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
When an equation involves one or more

derivatives with respect to a particular
variable, that variable is called
independent variable.
A variable is called dependent variable if

a derivative of that variable occurs.
Dependent Variable
𝑑2 𝑦 2
2
− 4𝑥𝑦 =0
Independent Variable 𝑑𝑥
3 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 +𝑄 − 𝑅 sin 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
Parameters
𝜕2𝑚 𝜕2𝑚
2
+ 2 =𝑚
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE
Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) are
equations where the derivatives are taken
with respect to only one variable.
Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) are
equations that depend on partial
derivatives of several variables.
𝑑2 𝑦 2
2
− 4𝑥𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
Ordinary
Differential
Equations (ODE)
3 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 +𝑄 − 𝑅 sin 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
Partial
𝜕2𝑚 𝜕2𝑚 Differential
2
+ 2 =𝑚 Equation (PDE)
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
CLASSIFICATION BY ORDER AND DEGREE

Order of a differential equation is the
order of the highest derivative appearing
in the equation.
Degree of a differential equation is the
power of the highest-order derivative.
Second Order (Order-Two)
𝑑2 𝑦 2
2
− 4𝑥𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
Second Degree
3 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 +𝑄 − 𝑅 sin 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
𝜕2𝑚 𝜕2𝑚
2
+ 2 =𝑚
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
CLASSIFICATION BY LINEARITY
Linear Differential Equation is one in which the

dependent variable and its derivative appear
additive combinations of their power. The
dependent variable and all its derivatives are of first
degree. Each term of a linear equation has
coefficient and will only depends on the
independent variable.
𝑑2 𝑦 2
2
− 4𝑥𝑦 =0 Non-linear
𝑑𝑥
3 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 +𝑄 − 𝑅 sin 𝑡 = 0 Non-linear
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
𝜕2𝑚 𝜕2𝑚
2
+ 2 =𝑚 Linear
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
Exercise 1. Classification of Differential Equations

Classify the following differential equation as ordinary differential
equation (ODE) or a partial differential equation (PDE), give the order
and degree, and indicate the independent and dependent variable.
Indicate whether the equation is linear or nonlinear.
𝑑𝑦 𝑦(2 − 3𝑥 ሻ
1. =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥(1 − 3𝑦ሻ
(Competition between species)

2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2. 1 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=0
(Flow of Gases through a porous medium – Kiddler’s Equation)

2
𝜕𝑁 𝜕 𝑁 1 𝜕𝑁
3. 𝜕𝑡
= 2 +
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
+ 𝑘𝑁
(Nuclear Fission)

4
𝑑 𝑦
4. 8 4 = 𝑥(1 − 𝑥ሻ
𝑑𝑥
(Deflection of beams)

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
5. +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
= 0
(Laplace’s equation)
SECTION 2 ELIMINATION OF ARBITRARY CONSTANTS
A constant is a number whose value is fixed.
An arbitrary constant is a constant whose value

could be assumed to be anything as long as it does
not depend on other variables within the equation.
One way of obtaining differential equation

is by the elimination of arbitrary constants
appearing on the equation. The resulting
differential equation must always have the
highest order equivalent to the number of
arbitrary constants.
Exercise 2. Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

Obtain the differential equation of the following equation
by elimination of arbitrary constants.
1. 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝐴

ℎ
2. 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 +
𝑚
ℎ not to be eliminated.

3. 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵ሻ
𝜔 not to be eliminated.

4. 2
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥𝑒 𝑥

5. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥
SECTION 3 FAMILIES OF CURVES
General solution of a differential equation is an

expression that contains all possible solutions with C
as an arbitrary constant for all x in the interval.
2
Example: 𝑥 = 𝑦 − ln 𝑦 + 1 + 𝐶
SECTION 3 FAMILIES OF CURVES
Particular solution of a differential equation is an

expression that contains particular value of the
constant C, satisfying the initial conditions.
2
Example: 𝑥 = 𝑦 − ln 𝑦 + 1 + 2
Exercise 3. Families of Curves

Obtain the differential equation of the family of plane
curves given below. Sketch several representative
members of the family.
Straight Lines.
1. Straight lines passing through origin.


Straight Lines.
2. Straight lines passing through (h, k).


Straight Lines.
3. Straight lines with slope and y-intercept equal.


Straight Lines.
4. Straight lines with slope and x-intercept equal.


Straight Lines.
Straight lines at fixed distance P from
5. the origin.

Circles
6. Circles with center at the origin.


Circles
7. Circles with fixed radius, r, and tangent to x-axis.


Circles
8. All circles.

Parabolas
9. Parabolas with vertex on the x-axis, with axis

parallel to the y-axis and with distance from t he
focus to vertex fixed as a.

Parabolas
10. Parabolas with vertex and focus on the x-axis.


Parabolas
11. Parabolas with axis parallel to the x-axis.


Cubics
12. Cubics 𝑐𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 𝑎ሻ with a held fixed.


Quartics
13. Quartics 𝑐 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑎ሻ3 with c held fixed.


Cardioids
14. Cardioids 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − sin 𝜃ሻ .


Cissoids
15. Cissoids 𝑟 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 .

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equations
CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1. 5 2 −4 + 9𝑥 = 2 cos 3𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(Mechanical Vibrations, Electrical Circuits, Seismology)

2
𝑑𝑦
2. 𝑦 1+
𝑑𝑥
=𝐶
(Brachistochrone Problem, Calculus of Variations)

2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3. 𝑑𝑥 2
− 0.1 1 − 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥
+ 9𝑦 = 0
(van der Pol’s Equation, Triode Vacuum Tube)

2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
4. 𝑥 2+
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑥𝑦 = 0
(Aerodynamics, Stress Analysis)

2 2
𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
5. 𝑑𝑡 2
=𝑐 2
𝑑𝑥 2
(Wave Equation)
Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equation
ELIMINATION OF ARBITRARY CONSTANTS

6. 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑦

7. 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵 sin 𝑥

8. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 4𝑥

9. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥

10. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥

FAMILIES OF CURVES
Straight Lines
11. Straight lines with algebraic sum of the intercepts

fixed as k.
FAMILIES OF CURVES
Circles
12. Circles with center on the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 and

passing through origin.
FAMILIES OF CURVES
Parabolas
13. Parabolas with axis parallel to x-axis and with

distance from the vertex to focus fixed as k.
FAMILIES OF CURVES
Strophoids
14. Strophoids 𝑟 = 𝑎 (sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃ሻ .


FAMILIES OF CURVES
Confocal Central Conics
15. Confocal central conics, with a and b held fixed.

𝑥2 𝑦2
2
+ 2 =1
𝑎 +𝜆 𝑏 +𝜆
CHAPTER
First - Order
First – Order Differential Equations
SECTION 1 SEPARABLE EQUATIONS
A simple class of first-order differential

equations that can be solved using
integration is the class of separable
equations.
A first-order differential equation is separable if it

can be written
𝑑𝑦
from = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ
𝑑𝑥
to ℎ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 ln 𝑥 ln 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥+𝑦
𝑒 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 3𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑥
sec 𝑑𝑦 = sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑦
𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Exercise 1. Separable Equations
Obtain the general and particular solution of the following

separable equations.
1. 1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0
when 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 2

2. 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑦 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
when 𝑥 = 𝜋 and 𝑦 = 1

3. 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑏 (cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃ሻ

1 𝜋
when 𝑟 = and 𝜃 =
2 6

4. 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
1
when 𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑦 →
2

5. sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑦′ = 0

𝜋 5𝜋
when 𝑥 = and 𝑦 =
4 2
SECTION 2 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
The function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ is said to be

homogenous of degree k in x and y if,
and only if,
𝑘
𝑓 𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ
THEOREM 1
If 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ and 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ are both
homogenous and of the same degree,
𝑀(𝑥,𝑦ሻ
the function is homogenous of
𝑁(𝑥,𝑦ሻ
degree zero.
THEOREM 2
If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ is homogenous of degree zero in
𝑦
x and y, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ is a function of alone.
𝑥
PROOF
Theorem 2 states that if 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ is
homogenous of degree zero, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦ሻ is a
𝑦
function of 𝑣 alone, where 𝑣 = .
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑥 0 1, 𝑣 = 𝑓(1, 𝑣ሻ
4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
2𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑒 𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑦
𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑦 ln 𝑦
Suppose that the coefficients 𝑀 and 𝑁 in

an equation of order one,
𝑀 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
are both homogenous functions and are

of the same degree in 𝑥 and 𝑦.
𝑀
From Theorems 1 and 2, the ratio is a
𝑁
𝑦
function of alone. Hence
𝑥
may be put in the form
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
+𝑔 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
This suggests the introduction of a new

variable 𝑣 by putting 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥.
𝑑𝑣
𝑥 +𝑣+𝑔 𝑣 =0
𝑑𝑥
in which the variables are separable.

Exercise 2. Homogenous Equations
Obtain the general solution of the following equations.
1. 2 2
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 2 2
𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 − (𝑥 + 𝑦 ሻ𝑑𝑦 = 0
3. 2 2
2(2𝑥 + 𝑦 ሻ𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
4. 2 ′ 2
𝑥 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 7𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2
5. 𝑥 − 𝑦 4𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 5𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
SECTION 3 EXACT EQUATIONS
Consider the differential equation of the form.
in which the separation of variables may not

be possible.
Suppose that a function 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 can be found

that has for its differential the expression.
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦
Then certainly , 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶
It follows that, 𝑑𝐹 = 0
0 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦
Total Derivative 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦

Partial Derivative of F
with respect to y
treating x as constant
Partial Derivative of F
with respect to x
treating y as constant
𝜕𝐹 Partial Derivative of F
𝑀= = 𝐹𝑥 with respect to x
𝜕𝑥 treating y as constant
𝜕𝐹 Partial Derivative of F
𝑁= = 𝐹𝑦 with respect to y
𝜕𝑦 treating x as constant
𝜕𝑀 𝜕2𝐹 Partial Derivative of

= 𝑀𝑦 = = 𝐹𝑥𝑦 𝑭𝒙 with respect to y
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 treating x as constant
𝜕𝑁 𝜕2𝐹 Partial Derivative of

= 𝑀𝑥 = = 𝐹𝑦𝑥 𝑭𝒚 with respect to x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 treating y as constant
A differential equation is said to be exact if,
𝐹𝑥𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦𝑥
Exercise 3. Exact Equations
1. 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 − 𝑦ሻ𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 3
3𝑥 𝑥𝑦 − 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3. 3 2 2
2𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 3 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
4. 2
2𝑥𝑦 − tan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 02
5. sin 𝜃 − 2𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 2𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 1 𝑑𝜃 = 0

SECTION 4 LINEAR EQUATIONS
If an equation is not exact, it is natural to

attempt to make it exact by introduction of
an appropriate factor, which is then called
“integrating factor”.
The existence of integrating factor can be

demonstrated on one important class of
equations, the Order-One Linear Equation.
An equation that is linear and of order one in

the dependent variable ‘y’ must by definition
be of the standard form,
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑷 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑸(𝑥ሻ
𝑑𝑥
The integrating factor, 𝒗 , for linear equations

with y as dependent variable, can be expressed
as;
‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑃 ׬‬
𝑣=𝑒
And the solution for the order-one linear

equations with y as dependent is,
𝑣𝑦 = න 𝑣𝑄(𝑥ሻ
Exercise 4. Linear Equations
1. 2
2 𝑦 − 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 + 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3. 𝑥 5 + 3𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
4. 2
2𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
5. ′
𝑦 = csc 𝑥 + 𝑦 cot 𝑥
SECTION 5 INTEGRATING FACTORS FOUND BY INSPECTION
Exercise 5. Integrating Factors found by Inspection
1. 3 2
𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 𝑦 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3. 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 4 − 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 = 0
4. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
SECTION 6 Determination of Integrating Factor
Integrating factors can be expressed in the following

rules:
1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀
a. If − = 𝑓(𝑥ሻ, a function of x alone, then;
𝑁 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝒗 = 𝑒‫𝑓 ׬‬ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
b. If − = 𝑔(𝑦ሻ, a function of y alone, then;
𝑀 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝒗 = 𝑒 ‫ ׬‬−𝑔 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Exercise 6. Determination of Integrating Factor
1. 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 2 2
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0
3. 𝑥𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
4. 𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
5. 2𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 1 𝑑𝑦
SECTION 7 Elementary Applications of Differential Equations
1. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation.

 Escape Velocity
2. Newton’s Law of Cooling.
3. Mixture Problems.
1. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation.
The law states that every particle attracts every

other particle in the universe with a force which
is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between their centers
 Escape Velocity
The minimum velocity a moving body must

have to escape from the gravitational influence
of the massive body.
1
𝑎∝ 2
𝑟
3
𝑚
𝐺 = 6.674 × 10−11
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠 2
𝐹= 𝑀 = 5.972 × 1024 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑅2 = 6 371 𝑘𝑚
2
2𝑔𝑅
𝑣2 = + 𝑣𝑒 2 − 2𝑔𝑅
𝑟
𝑣𝑒 = 2𝑔𝑅
Exercise 7. Escape Velocity
1. The radius of the moon is roughly 1080 miles.

The acceleration of gravity at the surface of the
moon is about 16.5% of the acceleration of
gravity at the surface of the earth. Determine
the velocity of escape for the moon.
2. Calculate the escape velocity for Mars.

2. Newton’s Law of Cooling.
The temperature of the body changes at a

rate that is proportional to the difference in
temperature between the outside medium
and the body itself.
𝑑𝑇
∝ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Exercise 7. Newton’s Law of Cooling
1. A thermometer reading 18℉ is brought into

the room where the temperature is 70℉. One
minute later the thermometer reading is 31℉.
a. Determine the temperature reading as a

function of time.
b. Find the temperature reading 5 minutes
after the thermometer is first brought into
the room
You are called to the scene of a crime where
a dead body has just been found.
When you arrive on the scene at 10:23PM you
started the investigation. Immediately, the
temperature of the body is taken and is found to
be 80 ° F. You check the programmable
thermostat and finds that the room has been
kept at a constant 68°F for the past 3 days.
At 11:36PM, after the evidences have been
collected, the temperature of the body is taken
once more and found to be 78.5°F. The police
approached and asked you, “what time did the
victim die?” Assume the normal human body
temperature is 98.6 °F.
Exercise 7. Newton’s Law of Cooling
2. At 9:00AM a thermometer reading 70℉ is

taken outdoors, where the temperature is 15℉.
At 9:05AM the thermometer reading is 45℉. At
9:10AM the thermometer is taken back indoors,
where the temperature is fixed as 70℉.
a. Find the reading at 9:20AM.

b. When will the reading shows the indoor
temperature?
3. Mixture Problems.
𝑑𝑄
= 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Exercise 7. Mixture Problems
1. A tank contains 80 gallons of pure water. A

brine solution with 2 lb/gal of salt enters at 2
gal/min, and a well-stirred mixture leaves at the
same rate.
a. Find the amount of salt in the tank at any

time.
b. Amount of salt after 2 minutes.
Exercise 7. Mixture Problems
2. A tank has pure water flowing into it at 12

L/min. The contents of the tank are kept
thoroughly mixed, and the contents flow out at
10 L/min. Initially the tank contains 10 kg of salt in
100 L of water.
a. Find the amount of salt in the tank at any

time.
b. Amount of salt after 30 minutes.
SECTION 8 Substitution Suggested by the Equation.
The general form of the Order-One Differential

Equation may not yield at once to the previous
methods. It may be possible by some change of
variables to transform the equation into a type
that we know how to solve.
Exercise 8. Substitution Suggested by the Equation
1. 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 𝑦 ′ = (9𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 1ሻ2
3. sin 𝑦 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0

SECTION 9 Coefficients Linear in Two Variables
Consider a differential equation in the form

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
where 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are constants

If the lines;
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0
are parallel, then 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑑𝑦
By substitution of 𝑢, the equation becomes
a separable equation.
If the lines;
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0
Will intersect a point ℎ, 𝑘 , then;
𝑥 =𝑢+ℎ
𝑦 =𝑢+𝑘
By substitution, the equation becomes a
homogenous equation.
Exercise 9. Coefficients Linear in Two Variables
1. 9𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Exercise 9. Coefficients Linear in Two Variables
2. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 1 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5 𝑑𝑦 = 0
SECTION 10 Bernoulli’s Equation
A first-order linear equation may be written in

the standard form discussed on Section 4,
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑷 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑸(𝑥ሻ
𝑑𝑥
And a Bernoulli’s Equation can be written in

standard form,
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑷 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑸(𝑥ሻ𝑦 𝑛
𝑑𝑥
It is a non-linear equation because of the

term containing 𝑦 𝑛 .
But by some rearrangements, it can also be

expressed as
−𝑛
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 + 𝑷 𝑥 𝑦1−𝑛 = 𝑸(𝑥ሻ
𝑑𝑥
If we let 𝑧 = 𝑦1−𝑛 and 𝑑𝑧 = (1 − 𝑛ሻ𝑦 −𝑛 𝑑𝑦 and

substitute to back to the equation, in terms
of 𝑧.
𝑑𝑧
+ 1−𝑛 𝑷 𝑥 𝑧 = 1−𝑛 𝑸 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Which is now a linear equation in 𝑧 , and

solutions to linear equation can be used.
𝑑𝑧
+ 1−𝑛 𝑷 𝑥 𝑧 = 1−𝑛 𝑸 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Integrating factor,
1−𝑛 𝑷 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑒‫׬‬
And the solution,

𝑣𝑧 = න 1 − 𝑛 𝑄 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Exercise 10. Bernoulli’s Equation
1. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 𝑒 −2𝑥
2. 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3. 6𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 2𝑥 3 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
CHAPTER
Laplace
Transformation
Laplace Transformation
SECTION 1 Laplace Transforms
Let 𝑓(𝑡ሻ be a function of 𝑡 defined for as positive

values of 𝑡, then the Laplace transforms of 𝑓(𝑡ሻ,
denoted by ℒ{𝑓 𝑡 } is defined by
∞
−𝒔𝒕
𝓛𝒇 𝒕 = 𝑭(𝑠ሻ = න 𝒆 𝒇 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟎
Provided that the integral exists. ‘s’ is the
parameter which may be real or complex
number.
Exercise 1. Laplace Transforms
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions.
𝟏. 𝑓 𝑡 =𝑐
𝟐. 𝑓 𝑡 =𝑡
𝟑. 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑛
𝑘𝑡
𝟒. 𝑓 𝑡 =𝑒
𝟓. 𝑓 𝑡 = sin 𝑘𝑡
𝟔. 𝑓 𝑡 = co𝑠 𝑘𝑡
SECTION 2 Properties of Laplace Transformations
LINEARITY PROPERTY
Let 𝒂 and 𝒃 be any constants and 𝒇 and 𝒈 be any
function of 𝒕, then by definition;
𝓛 𝑎𝒇 𝑡 + 𝑏𝒈(𝑡ሻ = 𝑎𝓛 𝒇(𝑡ሻ + b𝓛 𝒈(𝑡ሻ

FIRST-SHIFTING PROPERTY
If 𝓛 𝒇 𝑡 = 𝑭(𝑠ሻ, then,
𝓛 𝒆𝑎𝑡 𝒇 𝑡 = 𝑭(𝑠 − 𝑎ሻ
MULTIPLICATION BY 𝒕𝒏
If 𝓛 𝒇 𝑡 = 𝑭(𝑠ሻ, then,
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
𝑑
𝓛𝑡 𝒇 𝑡 = (−1ሻ 𝑛
𝑭(𝑠ሻ
𝑑𝑠
TRANSFORM OF DERIVATIVE
If 𝒇′(𝑡ሻ be continuous and 𝓛 𝒇 𝑡 = 𝑭(𝑠ሻ, then,
𝓛 𝒇(𝑛ሻ 𝑡 = 𝑠 𝑛 𝑭 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝒇 0 − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝒇′ 0 − ⋯ − 𝒇 𝑛−1

(0ሻ
Exercise 2. Properties of Laplace Transforms
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions.

3 2𝑡
𝟏. 𝑡 𝑒
𝟐. 𝑒 𝑡 cos 2𝑡
𝟑. sin 3𝑡 cos 𝑡
𝟒. 𝑓′′ 𝑡 if 𝑓 𝑡 = cos 4𝑡
𝟓. 𝑓′′ 𝑡 + 2𝑓′ 𝑡 + 3𝑓(𝑡ሻ if 𝑓 ′ 0 = 1 and 𝑓 0 = 3

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MATH 7

are equations involving derivatives of one

When an equation involves one or more

A variable is called dependent variable if

CLASSIFICATION BY ORDER AND DEGREE

Linear Differential Equation is one in which the

Exercise 1. Classification of Differential Equations

Exercise 1. Classification of Differential Equations

Exercise 1. Classification of Differential Equations

Exercise 1. Classification of Differential Equations

Exercise 1. Classification of Differential Equations

A constant is a number whose value is fixed.

An arbitrary constant is a constant whose value

One way of obtaining differential equation

Exercise 2. Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

Exercise 2. Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

Exercise 2. Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

Exercise 2. Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

Exercise 2. Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

General solution of a differential equation is an

Particular solution of a differential equation is an

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

1. Straight lines passing through origin.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

2. Straight lines passing through (h, k).

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

3. Straight lines with slope and y-intercept equal.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

4. Straight lines with slope and x-intercept equal.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

6. Circles with center at the origin.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

7. Circles with fixed radius, r, and tangent to x-axis.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

9. Parabolas with vertex on the x-axis, with axis

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

10. Parabolas with vertex and focus on the x-axis.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

11. Parabolas with axis parallel to the x-axis.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

12. Cubics 𝑐𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 𝑎ሻ with a held fixed.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

13. Quartics 𝑐 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑎ሻ3 with c held fixed.

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

14. Cardioids 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − sin 𝜃ሻ .

Exercise 3. Families of Curves

15. Cissoids 𝑟 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 .

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equations

CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equations

CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equations

CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equations

CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equations

CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equation

ELIMINATION OF ARBITRARY CONSTANTS

Obtain the differential equation of the following equation

Assignment 3. Introduction to Differential Equation