THE PHYSICAL SELF

“BEAUTY IS WHEN YOU CAN APPRECIATE YOURSELF. WHEN YOU LOVE YOURSELF,
THAT'S WHEN YOU'RE MOST BEAUTIFUL.” ZOE KRAVITZ
• WHAT IS BEAUTY? HOW BEAUTY IS APPRECIATED VARIES THROUGH TIME, CULTURE,
AND THE VARIOUS PERCEPTIONS ABOUT THE WORLD. BEAUTY IS DEFINED IN SO MANY
WAYS, BUT IN ITS SIMPLEST SENSE, IT CAN BE DESCRIBED THAT BEAUTY IS HAPPINESS.
• EVERY PERSON IS UNIQUE. OUR INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCES AND MEMORIES TIE
TOGETHER THAT FORM OUR VERSIONS OF BEAUTY. WE HAVE DIFFERENT SIZES,
SHAPES, COLORS, HERITAGE, AND ROLES. HENCE, OUR BODY IS SIMPLY A SHELL THAT
ALLOWS US TO RADIATE OUR EXPERIENCES AND WHERE BEAUTY GETS TO SHINE
THROUGH. NO CULTURE, COMPANY, OR CONCEPT COULD EVER TRULY DEFINE BEAUTY.
AS WHAT HELEN KELLER SAID, “THE BEST AND MOST BEAUTIFUL THINGS IN THE WORLD
CANNOT BE SEEN OR EVEN TOUCHED - THEY MUST BE FELT WITH THE HEART."
WHAT PHILOSOPHERS THINK ABOUT BEAUTY
(THE STANFORD ENCYCLOPEDIA PHILOSOPHY, 2016 EDITION)

• THE NATURE OF BEAUTY IS ONE OF THE MOST ENDURING AND CONTROVERSIAL

THEMES IN WESTERN PHILOSOPHY. BEAUTY, TRADITIONALLY, WAS AMONG THE
ULTIMATE VALUES ALONG WITH GOODNESS, TRUTH, AND JUSTICE. IT WAS A PRIMARY
THEME AMONG ANCIENT GREEK, HELLENISTIC, AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHERS; AND
WAS CENTRAL TO EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY THOUGHT. BY THE
BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, BEAUTY WAS IN DECLINE AS A SUBJECT OF
PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY. HOWEVER, THERE WERE SIGNS OF REVIVED INTEREST BY
THE EARLY 2000S.
NARCISSUS
Who was Cleopatra VII ???
Who was Cleopatra VII ???
The last queen of Ancient Egypt (born
Greek) @ 18 yo

She ruled Egypt w/ her father Ptolemy XII

and later with her brothers Ptolemy XIII
and Ptolemy XIV

Married her brother Ptolemy XIV as per

Egyptian custom
 Twenty one-year-old Cleopatra and fifty two-year-old Julius Caesar
(Roman general) first met during his stay in Egypt in 47 BC. They stayed as
lovers throughout 47 and 48 BC, even though Caesar was already married
to his third wife. She seduced him by hiding inside a rolled-up carpet
which was carried into his quarters, He was so charmed when she tumbled
out and have become lovers that night. They have a son.

She proposed a potion made from ground up burnt mice, horse teeth, bear
grease and deer marrow to treat Caesar’s baldness.

Instead of Caesar's initial plan to annex Egypt, he helped Cleopatra claim

her throne from her brother, Ptolemy XIII. Caesar and Ptolemy XIII fought the
Battle of the Nile, ending in defeat for Ptolemy and his army.
The conspirators waited until Caesar took his seat in his golden chair for the tribunal of the Senate at Teatro
di Pompeo and about 60 people assassinated him by stabbing.
 Antony and Cleopatra is a tragedy by William Shakespeare

After Caesar was assassinated she was accused of having

been a conspirator in Caesars assassination so Mark Antony,
then the emperor of Rome summoned her.

Mark Antony had called for her presence to the city of Tarsus, to discuss
Rome's alliance with Egypt (later swearing to protect both her crown and
land). When Cleopatra did arrive (rather grandly), he was taken by her beauty
and appeal, marrying her in spite of already being married to Fulvia.

But as soon as they saw each other they instantly both feel in
love…

Mark Anthonny was a protégé and bestfriend of Julius Caesar

and his affair of Cleopatra made Octavius(cousin of Julius
Caesar) angry.He was a rival in power and declared war
against him.
• ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA JOINED FORCES ON THE BATTLE FRONT, TAKING THEIR INFANTRY FORWARD TO
FIGHT IT OUT WITH OCTAVIAN'S MEN, BUT HAD TO FLEE THE BATTLE GROUNDS ONCE THEY LEARNED THEIR
CHANCES OF WINNING WERE DWINDLING. ANTONY RETURNED TO THE BATTLEFIELD SHORTLY AFTER,
ALTHOUGH THE MISLEADING NEWS OF CLEOPATRA'S DEMISE (UPON HEARING THE NEWS OF ANTONY'S
DEATH SHE DID HERSELF IN, WHERE HISTORIANS CLAIM IT MAY HAVE BEEN AN ASP'S BITE THAT WAS
PART OF THE SUICIDE) FORCED HIM TO TAKE HIS OWN LIFE BY STABBING HIMSELF WITH HIS OWN
SWORD. HER SON CAESARION WAS THEN MADE PHARAOH BY HIS SUPPORTERS, BUT WAS LATER
EXECUTED POST OCTAVIAN'S ORDER.
• THE EXACT COURSE OF THE BATTLE IS NOT KNOWN, BUT IT IS SAID THAT WHILE FIGHTING A BATTLE IN ACTIUM, ANTONY GOT FALSE
NEWS OF CLEOPATRA'S DEATH. SHATTERED, HE FELL ON HIS SWORD. IT IS ALSO SAID THAT ANTONY ESCAPED TO EGYPT WITH
CLEOPATRA WHEN THEIR FORTUNES IN WAR TURNED AGAINST THEM. BUT THE ROYAL COUPLE COULDN'T ESCAPE MISFORTUNE. THE
FOLLOWING YEAR, WHEN OCTAVIAN ARRIVED IN EGYPT WITH HIS ARMY, ANTONY HAD TO COMMIT SUICIDE TO ESCAPE
IMPRISONMENT. WHEN CLEOPATRA LEARNED ABOUT ANTONY 'S DEATH, SHE WAS SHOCKED. SHE WAS TAKEN A PRISONER OF
OCTAVIAN, RESTRICTED BY HIS GUARDS TO PART OF HER OWN PALACE. SHATTERED BY HER HUSBAND'S DEATH AND HER
CAPTIVITY, WITH THE HELP OF SOME LOYAL SUBJECTS, SHE ARRANGED FOR A SMALL POISONOUS SNAKE, AN ASP, TO BE SMUGGLED
INTO HER QUARTERS IN A BASKET OF FIGS.
• THEN, CLEOPATRA ORDERED HER CHAMBERMAIDS TO LEAVE HER. SHE PUT ON HER ROYAL ROBES, LIED ON A COUCH OF GOLD, AND
APPLIED THE ASP TO HER BREAST. A LITTLE LATER SHE WAS FOUND DEAD.
•
READ MORE AT HTTP://WWW.THEHOLIDAYSPOT.COM/VALENTINE/STORIES/ANTHONY_CLEOPATRA.HTM#SLSXESSLTPYTZY5J.99
 Beautiful
Intelligent
Spoke 9 languages
Sexy
Rich
Power
Cleopatra's death effectively ended the final war of the
Roman Republic between Octavian and Mark Antony
CLEOPATRA’S BEAUTY SECRET
• 1. MILK BATH AND HONEY BATH

• HIPPOCRATES WROTE THAT CLEOPATRA USED THE MILK OF 700 DONKEYS TO BATHE IN. MILK CONTAINS
LACTIC ACID, WHICH IS USEFUL AS A MILD EXFOLIANT. NOT HAVING 700 FEMALE DONKEYS AROUND LIKE
CLEOPATRA DID, WE CAN RECREATE THIS ANCIENT BEAUTY RITUAL BY ADDING A HALF-GALLON OF WHOLE
GOAT MILK TO A TYPICAL BATH.
• 2. SALT SCRUB
• A SEA SALT SCRUB DOWN IS A GREAT WAY TO INVIGORATE THE SKIN AND REMOVE DEAD SKIN CELLS.
CLEOPATRA WOULD HAVE HAD ACCESS TO SALT MINED FORM CAVES, AS WELL AS THAT FROM THE SEA.

• EXFOLIATING WITH SEA SALTS

• 3. ROYAL JELLY
• THE ROYAL JELLY COLLECTED FROM BEES IS AN INCREDIBLY NOURISHING INGREDIENT TO ADD TO YOUR
BEAUTY ROUTINE. NUTRITIONAL PHYSICIAN DR. CASS INGRAM SAYS THAT ROYAL JELLY HAS AN ‘IMMENSE
NUTRITIONAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PROFILE, IT AIDS IN THE NATURAL REGENERATIVE PROCESSES BY
SUPPLYING PRECISELY WHAT THE BODY NEEDS. THUS, IT HELPS THE CELLS HEAL THEMSELVES

• 4. ROSE WATER
• ROSE WATER IS A DELICATE ASTRINGENT THAT CAN BE SPRAYED ON THE FACE AFTER CLEANING, LIKE A
TONER. ROSE WATER CAN BE MADE BY BOILING ONE CUP OF ROSE PETALS TO TWO CUPS OF WATER AND
COOLING THE MIXTURE. YOU CAN ALSO PURCHASE ROSE WATER FROM ORGANIC PRODUCT COMPANIES
LIKE INFLORA BOTANICA.
• APPLE CIDER VINEGAR
• 5. CLAY MASK
• BENTONITE CLAY IS A POPULAR COSMETIC AND HEALTH INGREDIENT AS WE RETURN TO ANCIENT BEAUTY
TREATMENTS. ACCORDING TO BURTSBEES.COM, ‘CLAY HAS SKIN-SOFTENING PROPERTIES AND HELPS
EXFOLIATE DEAD SKIN CELLS AND DRAW OUT IMPURITIES FROM THE SKIN.’

• 6. HEMP SEED OIL

• ANOTHER ANCIENT BEAUTY TREATMENT WOULD HAVE BEEN THE USE OF HEMP SEED OIL AS A
MOISTURIZER. BURTSBEES.COM SAYS THAT HEMP SEED OIL IS EXCELLENT FOR SKIN DUE TO THE ‘HIGH
CONTENT OF PROTEINS AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS.
• 7. ALOE LEAF JUICE
• THERE IS EVIDENCE THAT CLEOPATRA CONTRIBUTED TO A BOOK OF MEDICAL REMEDIES AND ONE OF HER
RECIPES WAS FOR ALOPECIA OR HAIR LOSS. RECIPES.HYPOTHESES.ORG SAYS THAT CLEOPATRA
SUGGESTED THAT THOSE SUFFERING FROM BALDNESS SHAVE DAILY AND RUB THE BALD AREA WITH A
LINEN CLOTH, AND THEN ANOINT THE AREA WITH A MIXTURE OF REED CANARY GRASS, (ARUNDINIS) AN
OUNCE OF POTASSIUM NITRATE (SPUMA NITRI OR SALTPETER) AND A SOLUTION OF PICIS LIQUIDA (TAR
WATER).
• MOISTURIZING WITH ALOE VERA
• 8. UNREFINED SHEA BUTTER
• CLEOPATRA WOULD HAVE ACCESS TO RAW, UNREFINED AFRICAN SHEA BUTTER. SHEA BUTTER AND OTHER
MOISTURIZING INGREDIENTS WOULD HAVE BEEN IMPORTANT FOR HER IN THE DESERT CLIMATE OF EGYPT.
• 9. TALLOW SOAP
• TALLOW IS AN ANIMAL PRODUCT, AND IF YOU ARE AGAINST THE USE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS
10. BEESWAX

BEESWAX IS STILL USED TODAY IN MANY COSMETICS FROM LOTION TO LIP BALM TO MASCARA. THE SKIN SMOOTHING,
HYDRATING, MOISTURE-LOCKING POWER OF BEESWAX IS AN EXCELLENT ANCIENT BEAUTY INGREDIENT THAT YOU CAN
ADD TO YOUR OWN HOMEMADE COSMETICS
JO AN OF ARC-HEROINE OF FRANCE
 SALOME
Salome was the
daughter of Herod II and
Herodias. According to
the New Testament, the
daughter of Herodias
demanded and received
the head of John the
Baptist
 LADY GODIVA
Godiva, Countess of Mercia (/ɡəˈdaɪvə/; died
. between 1066 and 1086), in Old English Godgifu,
was an English noblewoman who, according to
a legend dating at least to the 13th century,
rode naked – covered only in her long hair –
through the streets of Coventry to gain a
remission of the oppressive taxation that her
husband imposed on his tenants. The name
"Peeping Tom" for a voyeur originates from
later versions of this legend in which a man
named Thomas watched her ride and was
struck blind or dead
LIST OF 50 MOST BEAUTIFUL WOMEN IN THE WORLD

1. Deepika Padukone Scarlett Johansson Blake Lively Angelina Jolie

TOP 10 MOST HANDSOME MEN IN THE WORLD 2018

Hrithik Roshan Brad Pitt Godfrey Gao

THE TWO MOST DEBATED VIEWS ABOUT BEAUTY
ARE:

•BEAUTY IS OBJECTIVE.
•BEAUTY IS SUBJECTIVE
 BEFORE THE 18TH CENTURY, MOST WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON BEAUTY
TREATED IT AS AN OBJECTIVE QUALITY. FOR EXAMPLE:

ST. AUGUSTINE
• ASKED WHETHER THINGS
WERE BEAUTIFUL BECAUSE IT
GAVE DELIGHT, OR WHETHER
IT GAVE DELIGHT BECAUSE IT
WAS BEAUTIFUL. HE BELIEVED
IT TO BE THE LATTER.
 PLATO
• PLATO CONNECTED BEAUTY AS A
RESPONSE TO LOVE AND DESIRE.
HE ASSERTED THAT BEAUTY
EXISTS IN THE REALM OF FORMS,
AND THAT OBJECTS ARE FOUND
BEAUTIFUL BECAUSE IT IS A
REFLECTION OF THE IDEA OF
BEAUTY THAT ALREADY EXISTS IN
THE REALM OF FORMS
 ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE ASSERTED THAT
THE CHIEF FORMS OF
BEAUTY ARE ORDER,
SYMMETRY, AND
DEFINITENESS THAT CAN BE
DEMONSTRATED BY
MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.
BY THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, HOWEVER, BEAUTY WAS
ASSOCIATED WITH PLEASURE AS A PERSONAL PREFERENCE. SOME
PHILOSOPHERS WHO HOLD THIS VIEW ARE:
DAVID HUME
• “BEAUTY IS NO QUALITY IN THINGS THEMSELVES:
IT EXISTS MERELY IN THE MIND WHICH
CONTEMPLATES THEM; AND EACH MIND
PERCEIVES A DIFFERENT BEAUTY. ONE PERSON
MAY EVEN PERCEIVE DEFORMITY, WHERE
ANOTHER IS SENSIBLE OF BEAUTY; AND EVERY
INDIVIDUAL OUGHT TO ACQUIESCE IN HIS OWN
SENTIMENT, WITHOUT PRETENDING TO REGULATE
THOSE OF OTHERS.” (HUME 1757, 136)
 IMMANUEL KANT
• “THE JUDGMENT OF TASTE IS
THEREFORE NOT A JUDGMENT OF
COGNITION, AND IS CONSEQUENTLY
NOT LOGICAL BUT AESTHETICAL, BY
WHICH WE UNDERSTAND THAT
WHOSE DETERMINING GROUND CAN
BE NO OTHER THAN SUBJECTIVE.”
(KANT 1790, SECTION 1)
FRANCIS HUTCHESON
• “THE PERCEPTION OF BEAUTY DOES
DEPEND ON THE EXTERNAL SENSE OF
SIGHT; HOWEVER, THE INTERNAL SENSE OF
BEAUTY OPERATES AS AN INTERNAL OR
REFLEX SENSE. THE SAME IS THE CASE
WITH HEARING: HEARING MUSIC DOES NOT
NECESSARILY GIVE THE PERCEPTION OF
HARMONY AS IT IS DISTINCT FROM THE
HEARING,” (INQUIRY I. I. X).
 WHAT DID PSYCHOLOGY DISCOVER ABOUT
BEAUTY?
• RESEARCH FOUND THAT A PERSON WHO
IS PERCEIVED AS ATTRACTIVE MAKES
MORE MONEY THAN A PERSON OF
BELOW-AVERAGE LOOKS. IN POLITICS,
VOTERS WHO ARE NOT ACTIVELY
ENGAGED IN SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
ISSUES CHOOSE CANDIDATES BASED
ON “LOOKS” 90% OF THE TIME
Sethrida Tawk Geagea, is a Lebanese politician and MP Hans Linde , the Swedish Left Party politician , the 35 year old
representing the district of Bsharri. and one of youngest Left Party parliamentary group leader
• COGNITIVE BIAS IS AN ERROR IN REASONING, EVALUATING, REMEMBERING, OR OTHER
MENTAL PROCESS THAT IS OFTEN A RESULT OF HOLDING ON TO ONE'S PREFERENCES
AND BELIEFS REGARDLESS OF CONTRARY INFORMATION.

• HALO EFFECT (ALSO KNOWN AS THE PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS STEREOTYPE AND

THE "WHAT IS BEAUTIFUL IS GOOD" PRINCIPLE) REFERS TO THE TENDENCY OF PEOPLE
TO RATE ATTRACTIVE INDIVIDUALS MORE FAVORABLY FOR THEIR PERSONALITY TRAITS
OR CHARACTERISTICS AS COMPARED TO THOSE WHO ARE LESS ATTRACTIVE.
HOW CULTURAL TRADITIONS SHAPE BODY IMAGE
• CULTURE HAS A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON HOW A PERSON FEELS ABOUT HIMSELF OR
HERSELF AS WELL AS HIS OR HER BODY IMAGE. CULTURAL TRADITIONS CAN EITHER BE A
POSITIVE OR A NEGATIVE INFLUENCE ON BODY IMAGE AND ON SELF-ESTEEM. BODY IMAGE
IS GENERALLY DEFINED AS HOW ONE THINKS AND FEELS TOWARDS ONE’S BODY (YAM, 2013;
CASH & SMOLAK, 2011).

• PEOPLE SEE CULTURAL GROUP MEMBERSHIP AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF WHO THEY

ARE. HENCE, THEY ARE MORE LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN EVENTS AND BEHAVIORS THAT ARE
RELATED TO THEIR CULTURE - CHOOSE FRIENDS, MEDIA, AND EVEN MARITAL PARTNERS
FROM THEIR CULTURE (YAM, 2013; YEH & HUANG, 1996). WHEN “CULTURE” IS EXPERIENCED
AS A PERSONALLY MEANINGFUL ACTIVITY, IT IS DIFFICULT FOR A PERSON TO RESIST THE
CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS WAYS THAT CULTURE INFLUENCES A PERSON’S LIFE.
• FOR EXAMPLE, IDEAL STANDARDS OF BODY SIZES ARE CULTURALLY SPECIFIC. SINCE
THE 1960S, IDEAL BODY SIZES FOR WHITE AMERICAN WOMEN HAVE EMPHASIZED
THINNESS (YAM, 2013; FALLON, 1990; WISEMAN, GRAY, MOSIMANN, & AHRENS, 1992). THE
PHILIPPINES IS UNDOUBTEDLY INFLUENCED BY WESTERN CULTURE, PARTICULARLY
AMERICAN CULTURE; A CULTURE THAT GENERALLY TENDS TO HYPER-FOCUS ON
DIETING AND BODY APPEARANCE. DIGITALLY RETOUCHED PHOTOS ARE THE NORM (I.E.
PHOTOSHOPPED), AND THIS MENTALITY CAN NEGATIVELY INFLUENCE A PERSON’S
BODY IMAGE. A STUDY REPORTED THAT YOUNG FILIPINO WOMEN WERE DISSATISFIED
WITH THEIR BODIES THAT POSSIBLY STEMMED FROM UNREASONABLE WEIGHT
CONCERNS AND EXTREME DRIVE FOR THINNESS (TORRES, 2012).
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BODY IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM

• DOES YOUR BODY IMAGE HAVE AN IMPACT ON YOUR SELF-ESTEEM?

• THE TERM SELF-ESTEEM WAS COINED BY WILLIAM JAMES IN 1800. JAMES PRESENTED
SELF-ESTEEM AS THE NUMBER OF SUCCESSES A PERSON ACHIEVES IN THE DOMAINS
OF LIFE THAT ARE IMPORTANT TO HIM OR HER, DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF FAILURES
THAT OCCURRED IN THOSE AREAS (THE CORSINI ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE, 2002).
• IN THE 1960S, BEHAVIORAL SCIENTISTS DEFINED SELF-ESTEEM IN TERMS OF AN
ATTITUDE CONCERNING ONE’S WORTH AS A PERSON (ROSENBERG, 1965).
• SELF-ESTEEM IS ABOUT HOW YOU VALUE YOURSELF AND HOW YOU FEEL OTHERS
VALUE YOU.
• SELF-ESTEEM IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT CAN AFFECT YOUR MENTAL HEALTH AS WELL
AS HOW YOU BEHAVE.
Body image is how you
view your physical body,
whether you feel you are
attractive, and how you feel
other people like your looks.
For many people (especially
teenagers) body image is
closely linked to self-esteem.
• IF YOU HAVE A POSITIVE BODY IMAGE, YOU
PROBABLY LIKE AND ACCEPT YOURSELF THE WAY
YOU ARE, EVEN IF YOU DO NOT FIT POPULAR
NOTION OF “BEAUTIFUL” OR “HANDSOME”. THIS
HEALTHY ATTITUDE ALLOWS YOU TO EXPLORE
OTHER ASPECTS OF GROWING UP, SUCH AS
DEVELOPING GOOD FRIENDSHIPS, BECOMING
MORE INDEPENDENT FROM YOUR PARENTS, AND
CHALLENGING YOURSELF PHYSICALLY AND
MENTALLY. DEVELOPING THESE PARTS OF
YOURSELF CAN HELP BOOST YOUR SELF-
ESTEEM.
 HOW IMPORTANT IS PHYSICAL
BEAUTY?

• WHAT CAME INTO YOUR MIND COULD BE THE

SAYING, “DO NOT JUDGE THE BOOK BY ITS
COVER”. YOU MAY HAVE HEARD MANY PEOPLE
SAY THIS; YOU MAY HAVE SAID THIS YOURSELF.
HOWEVER, THOUGH IT IS A WISE THOUGHT
FROM THE CONSCIOUS MIND, YOUR
SUBCONSCIOUS MIND WILL CONTRADICT YOU
AND YOU WILL STILL FIND YOURSELF JUDGING
PEOPLE BASED ON THEIR LOOKS ON YOUR
INITIAL ENCOUNTERS
• PHYSICAL BEAUTY IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT.
HOWEVER, YOU MUST ALSO UNDERSTAND THAT YOU
NEED TO KNOW THE CORRECT DEFINITION OF
PHYSICAL BEAUTY SO THAT YOUR SELF-ESTEEM WILL
NOT SUFFER. THE DICTIONARY’S DEFINITION OF
BEAUTY IS, “THE DEGREE TO WHICH A PERSON’S
PHYSICAL TRAITS ARE CONSIDERED PLEASING OR
BEAUTIFUL”. TAKE NOTE THAT THE DEFINITION DID
NOT INDICATE “WHO” DETERMINES WHAT TYPE OF
PHYSICAL TRAITS IS ATTRACTIVE AND
UNATTRACTIVE. WHY? BECAUSE EVEN THOUGH
PHYSICAL BEAUTY IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT, THE
GOOD NEWS IS THAT PHYSICAL BEAUTY STANDARDS
DIFFER FROM ONE PERSON TO ANOTHER.
• A SELF-IMAGE PROBLEM
HAPPENS WHEN YOUR LOOKS
DO NOT MATCH YOUR BEAUTY
STANDARDS. FOR EXAMPLE IF
YOU BELIEVE THAT BEING
THIN IS SEXY AND
ATTRACTIVE, YET YOU ARE
NOT THIN (IN FACT YOU ARE
ON THE HEAVIER SIDE) THEN
YOU MIGHT BELIEVE YOU ARE
UNATTRACTIVE (EVEN
THOUGH THERE ARE OTHERS
WHO FIND YOU ATTRACTIVE).
DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS AND THE HUMAN
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• SOON AFTER THE FERTILIZATION OF AN EGG, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM BEGINS. FOR EXAMPLE, APPROXIMATELY ONE MONTH AFTER
CONCEPTION PRIMORDIAL GONADS ALSO BEGIN TO DEVELOP. RAPID REPRODUCTIVE
DEVELOPMENT HAPPENS INSIDE THE MOTHER’S WOMB; BUT WHEN THE CHILD IS BORN
UP UNTIL PUBERTY, THERE IS LITTLE CHANGE IN THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FURTHER SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT OCCURS AT
PUBERTY

• PUBERTY IS THE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT AT WHICH INDIVIDUALS BECOME SEXUALLY

MATURE. THE OUTCOME OF PUBERTY IS DIFFERENT FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, BUT THE
HORMONAL PROCESS IS SIMILAR. MOREOVER, THOUGH THE TIMING OF THESE
CHANGES VARIES FOR EVERY INDIVIDUAL, THE SEQUENCE OF CHANGES FOR BOYS
AND GIRLS IS PREDICTABLE RESULTING IN ADULT PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
THE CAPACITY TO REPRODUCE.
PUBERTY CAN BE SEPARATED INTO FIVE STAGES. THE CHARACTERISTICS
FOR EACH STAGE VARY FOR GIRLS AND BOYS.
STAGES PUBERTY STAGES IN GIRLS
Approximately between the
ages of 8 and 11:
1
The ovaries enlarge and
hormone production starts, but
external development is not yet
visible.
PUBERTY STAGES IN BOYS
Approximately between ages 9
and 12:
No visible signs of development
occur; but internally, male
hormones become a lot more
active. Sometimes a growth
spurt begins at this time.
 -Approximately between the ages of 8 and 14: -Approximately between ages 9 to 15:
-The first external sign of puberty is usually -Height increases and the shape of the body
breast development. changes.
-At first breast buds develop. The nipples will be -Muscle tissue and fat develop at this time.
tender and elevated.
-The area around the nipple (the aureole) will
-The aureole, the dark skin around the nipple,
increase in size.
darkens and increases in size.

2 -The first stage of pubic hair may also be present

-The testicles and scrotum grow, but the penis
at this time. It may be coarse and curly or fine
probably does not.
and straight.
-Height and weight increase at this time. The
body gets rounder and curvier. -A little bit of pubic hair begins to grow at the
base of the penis.
 Approximately between the ages of Approximately between ages 11 and 16
9 and 15: The penis starts to grow during this stage. It
Breast growth continues and pubic tends to grow in length rather than width.
3 hair gets coarser and darker.
Pubic hair is getting darker and coarser and
During this stage, whitish discharge spreading to where the legs meet the torso.
from the vagina may be present. Also, boys continue to grow in height, and even
For some girls, the first menstrual their faces begin to appear more mature.
period begins at this time. The shoulders broaden, making the hips look
smaller.
Muscle tissue increases and the voice starts to
change and deepen.
Finally, facial hair begins to develop on the upper
lip.
 -Approximately between ages 11 and 16
-The penis starts to grow during this stage. It tends to grow in length rather
than width.
-Pubic hair is getting darker and coarser and spreading to where the legs
meet the torso.
-Also, boys continue to grow in height, and even their faces begin to appear
4 more mature.
-The shoulders broaden, making the hips look smaller.
-Muscle tissue increases and the voice starts to change and deepen.
-Finally, facial hair begins to develop on the upper lip.
 Approximately between ages 12 and 19: Approximately 14 to 18:

This is the final stage of development. Boys reach their full adult height.
Full height is reached, and young
5 women are ovulating regularly.
Pubic hair and the genitals look like an
adult man's do.
Pubic hair is filled in, and the breasts
are developed fully for the body.
At this point, too, shaving is a
necessity.

Some young men continue to grow

past this point, even into their twenties.
 WHAT ARE THE EROGENOUS ZONES OF THE BODY?

• THE TERM EROGENOUS ZONES

WAS POPULARIZED IN THE 1960S AND
1970S TO DESCRIBE AREAS OF THE
BODY THAT ARE HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO
STIMULI AND ARE OFTEN (BUT NOT
ALWAYS) SEXUALLY EXCITING. IN THIS
CONTEXT, “HIGHLY SENSITIVE” MEANS
THESE AREAS OF THE BODY HAVE A
HIGH NUMBER OF SENSORY
RECEPTORS OR NERVE ENDINGS THAT
REACT TO STIMULI.
THE SKIN
• THE SKIN SERVES AS PRIMARY EROTIC STIMULUS. TWO TYPES OF EROGENOUS ZONES
EXIST IN THE SKIN (WINKELMANN, 2004):
• NONSPECIFIC TYPE
• IT IS SIMILAR TO ANY OTHER PORTION OF THE USUAL HAIRED SKIN.
• THE NERVES SUPPLYING IT ARE COMPOSED OF THE USUAL DENSITY OF DERMAL-
NERVE NETWORKS AND HAIR-FOLLICLE NETWORKS.
• THE LEARNED AND ANTICIPATED PLEASURABLE SENSATIONS WHEN A STIMULUS IS
PRESENTED IN THESE REGIONS PRODUCE THE AMPLIFIED SENSATION.
• THE PLEASURABLE SENSATION FELT FROM THESE REGIONS IS SIMPLY AN
EXAGGERATED FORM OF TICKLE.
• EXAMPLES OF THIS TYPE OF SKIN ARE THE SIDES AND BACK OF THE NECK, THE
AXILLA (ARMPIT, UNDERARM) AND THE SIDES OF THE THORAX (CHEST).
• SPECIFIC TYPE
• IT IS FOUND IN THE MUCOCUTANEOUS REGIONS OF THE BODY OR THOSE REGIONS
MADE BOTH OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE AND OF CUTANEOUS SKIN.
• THESE REGIONS FAVOR ACUTE PERCEPTION.
• THESE SPECIFIC SITES OF ACUTE SENSATION ARE THE GENITAL REGIONS
INCLUDING THE PREPUCE, PENIS, THE FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA), THE
PERIANAL SKIN, LIPS, AND NIPPLES.
• THE PREPUCE IS THE RETRACTABLE FOLD OF SKIN COVERING THE TIP OF THE PENIS.
NONTECHNICAL NAME: FORESKIN. IT IS ALSO A SIMILAR FOLD OF SKIN COVERING THE
TIP OF THE CLITORIS. (COLLINS ENGLISH DICTIONARY)

• THE PENIS IS A MALE ERECTILE ORGAN OF COPULATION BY WHICH URINE AND

SEMEN ARE DISCHARGED FROM THE BODY (SPLENDORIOAND REICHEL, 2014).
FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA) INCLUDE:

• THE MONS PUBIS.

• THE CLITORIS. A FEMALE SEXUAL ORGAN THAT IS SMALL, SENSITIVE, AND LOCATED IN
FRONT OF THE OPENING OF THE VAGINA.
• THE LABIA MAJORA AND LABIA MINORA. THE LABIA MAJORA ARE FLESHY LIPS
AROUND THE VAGINA. THESE ARE LARGER OUTER FOLDS OF THE VULVA.THE LABIA
MINORA ALSO KNOWN AS THE INNER LABIA, INNER LIPS, VAGINAL LIPS OR NYMPHAE
ARE TWO FLAPS OF SKIN ON EITHER SIDE OF THE HUMAN VAGINAL OPENING IN THE
VULVA SITUATED BETWEEN THE LABIA MAJORA.
• VAGINAL INTROITUS IS THE OPENING THAT LEADS TO THE VAGINAL CANAL.
• THE HYMEN IS A MEMBRANE THAT SURROUNDS OR PARTIALLY COVERS THE EXTERNAL
VAGINAL OPENING.
• PERIANAL SKIN REFERS TO THE AREA OF THE BODY SURROUNDING THE ANUS, AND IN
PARTICULAR, THE SKIN. THE PERIANAL SKIN IS VERY SENSITIVE. IT IS ALSO
SUSCEPTIBLE TO INJURY AND DAMAGE.
• THE LIPS ARE SOFT, MOVABLE, AND SERVE AS THE OPENING FOR FOOD INTAKE
AND IN THE ARTICULATION OF SOUND AND SPEECH. HUMAN LIPS ARE DESIGNED TO BE
PERCEIVED BY TOUCH, AND CAN BE AN EROGENOUS ZONE WHEN USED IN KISSING AND
OTHER ACTS OF INTIMACY.

• NIPPLES ARE THE RAISED REGION OF TISSUE ON THE SURFACE OF THE BREAST.
A RECENT STUDY FOUND THAT THE SENSATION FROM THE NIPPLES TRAVELS TO THE
SAME PART OF THE BRAIN AS SENSATIONS FROM THE VAGINA, CLITORIS, AND CERVIX.
(PAPPAS, 2011)
 UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

• WHAT IS THE SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE? THE SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE REFERS TO THE SEQUENCE OF
PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL OCCURRENCES WHEN THE PERSON IS PARTICIPATING IN A SEXUALLY STIMULATING
ACTIVITY SUCH AS INTERCOURSE OR MASTURBATION (CLEVELAND CLINIC, WEB).

• KNOWING HOW THE BODY RESPONDS DURING EACH PHASE OF THE CYCLE CAN HELP ENHANCE A
COUPLE’S SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP AND IT CAN ALSO HELP ADDRESS THE CAUSE OF SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION.

• IN GENERAL, BOTH MEN AND WOMEN EXPERIENCE THESE PHASES. HOWEVER, THEY DO NOT
EXPERIENCE IT AT THE SAME TIME. FOR EXAMPLE, IT IS UNLIKELY THAT A COUPLE WILL ORGASM
SIMULTANEOUSLY. MOREOVER, THE INTENSITY OF THE SENSATION AND THE TIME SPENT IN EACH PHASE ALSO
VARY FROM PERSON TO PERSON.

• IN THE LATE 1950S, WILLIAM MASTERS AND VIRGINIA JOHNSON PIONEERED RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND
HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE, DYSFUNCTION, AND DISORDERS. MASTERS AND JOHNSON HAVE BEEN WIDELY
RECOGNIZED FOR THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO SEXUAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND PSYCHIATRIC RESEARCH,
PARTICULARLY FOR THEIR THEORY OF A FOUR-STAGE MODEL OF SEXUAL RESPONSE (ALSO KNOWN AS, THE
HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE).
 4 PHASES OF THE HUMAN SEXUAL
RESPONSE CYCLE:

•EXCITEMENT
•PLATEAU
•ORGASM
•RESOLUTION
 Phases General Characteristics
 Muscle tension increases.
 Heart rate quickens and breathing is accelerated.
 Skin may become flushed (blotches of redness appear on the chest and
back).
Phase 1:  Nipples become hardened or erect.
Excitement
 Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of the woman’s
clitoris and labia minora (inner lips), and erection of the man’s penis.
 Vaginal lubrication begins.
 The woman’s breasts become fuller and the vaginal walls begin to swell.
 The man’s testicles swell, his scrotum tightens, and he begins secreting a
lubricating liquid.
  The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.
 The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and
the vaginal walls turn a dark purple.
 The woman’s clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be
painful to touch) and retracts under the clitoral hood to avoid
Phase 2: direct stimulation from the penis.
Plateau  The man’s testicles are withdrawn up into the scrotum.
 Breathing, heart rate and blood pressure continue to increase.
 Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face and hands.
 Tension in the muscles increases.
 This phase is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the
shortest of the phases and generally lasts only a few
seconds. General characteristics of this phase include the
following:
Phase 3:
 Involuntary muscle contractions begin.
Orgasm
 Blood pressure, heart rate and breathing are at their
highest rates, with a rapid intake of oxygen.
 Muscles in the feet spasm.
 There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
 In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The uterus
also undergoes rhythmic contractions.
 In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of
the penis result in the ejaculation of semen.
 A rash or "sex flush" may appear over the entire body.
 During this phase, the body slowly returns to its normal
functioning level. The swelled and erect body parts return to
its previous size and color. This phase is marked by a
general sense of well-being; intimacy is enhanced; and
Phase 4: often, fatigue sets in.
Resolution

With further sexual stimulation, some women can return

to the orgasm phase. This allows them to experience
multiple orgasms. Men, on the other hand, need recovery
time after orgasm. This is called the refractory period. How
long a man needs a refractory period varies among men and
his age.
 SEX AND THE BRAIN. WHAT PARTS ARE INVOLVED?
• PRIMARILY, SEX IS THE PROCESS OF COMBINING MALE AND
FEMALE GENES TO FORM AN OFFSPRING. HOWEVER, COMPLEX
SYSTEMS OF BEHAVIOR HAVE EVOLVED THE SEXUAL PROCESS
FROM ITS PRIMARY PURPOSE OF REPRODUCTION TO
MOTIVATION AND REWARDS CIRCUIT THAT ROOT SEXUAL
BEHAVIORS.
• ULTIMATELY, THE LARGEST SEX ORGAN CONTROLLING THE
BIOLOGICAL URGES, MENTAL PROCESSES, AS WELL AS THE
EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL RESPONSES TO SEX IS THE BRAIN.
 ROLES OF THE BRAIN IN SEXUAL ACTIVITY:

• THE BRAIN IS RESPONSIBLE FOR TRANSLATING THE NERVE IMPULSES SENSED

BY THE SKIN INTO PLEASURABLE SENSATIONS.
• IT CONTROLS THE NERVES AND MUSCLES USED IN SEXUAL ACTIVITIES.
• SEXUAL THOUGHTS AND FANTASIES IS THEORIZED TO LIE IN THE CEREBRAL
CORTEX, THE SAME AREA USED FOR THINKING AND REASONING.
• EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS (WHICH ARE IMPORTANT FOR SEXUAL BEHAVIOR) IS
BELIEVED TO ORIGINATE IN THE LIMBIC SYSTEM.
• THE BRAIN RELEASES THE HORMONES CONSIDERED AS THE PHYSIOLOGICAL
ORIGIN OF SEXUAL DESIRE.
 (Outer part of
Cerebrum)

Telencephalon or

Diencephalon or
THE LIMBIC
SYSTEM

• Large “sea-horse” shaped structure imbedded in the temporal lobes

• Plays a role in the formation of new memories and Long Term Memories
 ROLES OF HORMONES IN SEXUAL ACTIVITY:

• THE HYPOTHALAMUS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PART OF

THE BRAIN FOR SEXUAL FUNCTIONING. THIS SMALL AREA AT
THE BASE OF THE BRAIN HAS OF SEVERAL GROUPS OF
NERVE-CELL BODIES THAT RECEIVE INPUT FROM THE LIMBIC
SYSTEM. ONE REASON WHY THE HYPOTHALAMUS IS
IMPORTANT IN HUMAN SEXUAL ACTIVITY IS ITS RELATION TO
THE PITUITARY GLAND. THE PITUITARY GLAND SECRETES
THE HORMONES PRODUCED IN THE HYPOTHALAMUS.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
THE BODY’S “SLOW”
CHEMICAL
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
A SET OF GLANDS
THAT SECRETE
HORMONES INTO THE
BLOODSTREAM
• OXYTOCIN
• ALSO KNOWN AS THE “LOVE HORMONE” AND BELIEVED TO BE INVOLVED IN OUR DESIRE TO
MAINTAIN CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS. IT IS RELEASED DURING SEXUAL INTERCOURSE WHEN
ORGASM IS ACHIEVED.

•
• FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
• IT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR OVULATION IN FEMALES. THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCES IN DURHAM, N.C., DISCOVERED THAT SEXUAL ACTIVITY WAS
MORE FREQUENT DURING A WOMAN’S FERTILE TIME.

• LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)

• THE LH IS CRUCIAL REGULATING THE TESTES IN MEN AND OVARIES IN WOMEN. IN MEN,
THE LH STIMULATES THE TESTES TO PRODUCE TESTOSTERONE. IN MALES, TESTOSTERONE
APPEARS TO BE A MAJOR CONTRIBUTING FACTOR TO SEXUAL MOTIVATION.
• VASOPRESSIN
• VASOPRESSIN IS INVOLVED IN THE MALE AROUSAL PHASE. THE INCREASE OF
VASOPRESSIN DURING ERECTILE RESPONSE IS BELIEVED TO BE DIRECTLY
ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED MOTIVATION TO ENGAGE IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR.
•
• ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE

• ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE TYPICALLY REGULATE MOTIVATION TO ENGAGE IN

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR FOR FEMALES, WITH ESTROGEN INCREASING MOTIVATION AND
PROGESTERONE DECREASING IT.
 UNDERSTANDING THE CHEMISTRY OF LUST, LOVE, AND
ATTACHMENT
• FALLING IN LOVE CAN BE A BEAUTIFULLY WILD EXPERIENCE. IT IS A RUSH
OF LONGING, PASSION, AND EUPHORIA. FAST FORWARD A FEW YEARS, AND
THE EXCITEMENT WOULD HAVE DIED DOWN (THOUGH THE LEVELS VARY FOR
EVERY COUPLE). FOR COUPLES WHO REMAIN TOGETHER THROUGH THE
YEARS, THE RUSH WOULD HAVE BEEN REPLACED BY A WARM, COMFORTABLE,
AND NURTURING FEELING.
• EACH STAGE OF THIS CYCLE CAN ACTUALLY BE EXPLAINED BY YOUR
BRAIN CHEMISTRY – THE NEUROTRANSMITTERS THAT GET STIMULATED TO
RELEASE HORMONES THROUGHOUT YOUR BODY.
• ANTHROPOLOGIST HELEN FISHER OF RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PROPOSED
THREE STAGES OF FALLING IN LOVE; AND FOR EACH STAGE, A DIFFERENT
SET OF CHEMICAL RUN THE SHOW.
 THE THREE STAGES OF FALLING IN LOVE:

•LUST (EROTIC PASSION)

•ATTRACTION (ROMANTIC PASSION)
•ATTACHMENT (COMMITMENT)
STAGE 1 LUST

• THIS STAGE IS MARKED BY PHYSICAL ATTRACTION.

YOU WANT TO SEDUCE AND BE SEDUCED BY YOUR
OBJECT OF AFFECTION. LUST IS DRIVEN BY
TESTOSTERONE IN MEN AND ESTROGEN IN WOMEN.
LUST HOWEVER WILL NOT GUARANTEE THAT THE
COUPLE WILL FALL IN LOVE IN ANY LASTING WAY.
STAGE 2 ATTRACTION
• AT THIS STAGE, YOU BEGIN TO CRAVE FOR YOUR PARTNER’S PRESENCE. YOU FEEL
EXCITEMENT AND ENERGETIC AS YOU FANTASIZE ABOUT THE THINGS YOU COULD DO TOGETHER
AS A COUPLE. THREE CHEMICALS TRIGGER THIS FEELING: NOREPINEPHRINE, DOPAMINE,AND
SEROTONIN.
• NOREPINEPHRINE – RESPONSIBLE FOR THE EXTRA SURGE OF ENERGY AND TRIGGERS
INCREASED HEART RATE, LOSS OF APPETITE, AS WELL AS THE DESIRE TO SLEEP. YOUR BODY IS
IN A MORE ALERT STATE AND IS READY FOR ACTION.
• DOPAMINE – ASSOCIATED WITH MOTIVATION AND GOAL DIRECTED BEHAVIOR. IT MAKES
YOU PURSUE YOUR OBJECT OF AFFECTION. IT CREATES A SENSE OF NOVELTY, WHERE THE
PERSON SEEMS EXCITING, SPECIAL, OR UNIQUE THAT YOU WANT TO TELL THE WORLD ABOUT
HIS OR HER ADMIRABLE QUALITIES.
• SEROTONIN – THOUGHT TO CAUSE OBSESSIVE THINKING. LOW LEVELS OF SEROTONIN
ARE SAID TO BE PRESENT IN PEOPLE WITH OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR (OCD).
MEANWHILE, A STUDY FOUND THAT THOSE WHO EXPRESSED THEY WERE IN LOVE AND PEOPLE
WITH OCD BOTH HAD LESS SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER IN THEIR BLOOD COMPARED TO THOSE
WHO DID NOT EXPRESS THEY WERE IN LOVE AND DO NOT HAVE OCD AS WELL.
STAGE 3 ATTACHMENT

• ATTACHMENT INVOLVES THE DESIRE TO HAVE LASTING COMMITMENT WITH YOUR

SIGNIFICANT OTHER. AT THIS POINT, YOU MAY WANT TO GET MARRIED AND/OR HAVE
CHILDREN.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SEXUAL DESIRE

• SEXUAL DESIRE IS TYPICALLY VIEWED AS AN INTEREST IN SEXUAL OBJECTS OR

ACTIVITIES. MORE PRECISELY, IT IS THE SUBJECTIVE FEELING OF WANTING TO ENGAGE
IN SEX. SEXUAL DESIRE IS SOMETIMES, BUT NOT ALWAYS, ACCOMPANIED BY GENITAL
AROUSAL (PENILE ERECTION IN MEN AND VAGINAL LUBRICATION IN WOMEN). SEXUAL
DESIRE CAN BE TRIGGERED BY A LARGE VARIETY OF CUES AND SITUATIONS INCLUDING
PRIVATE THOUGHTS, FEELINGS, AND FANTASIES, EROTIC MATERIALS (SUCH AS BOOKS,
MOVIES, PHOTOGRAPHS), AND A VARIETY OF EROTIC ENVIRONMENTS, SITUATIONS, OR
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS.
• SEXUAL DESIRE IS OFTEN CONFUSED WITH SEX DRIVE, BUT THESE ARE
FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTS. SEX DRIVE REPRESENTS A BASIC,
BIOLOGICALLY MEDIATED MOTIVATION TO SEEK SEXUAL ACTIVITY OR SEXUAL
GRATIFICATION. IN CONTRAST, SEXUAL DESIRE REPRESENTS A MORE COMPLEX
PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIENCE THAT IS NOT DEPENDENT ON HORMONAL FACTORS.
 GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SEXUAL DESIRE

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE NOTABLE GENDER DIFFERENCE

ON SEXUAL DESIRE INCLUDE:

• CULTURE
• SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT, AND EVEN
• POLITICAL SITUATIONS
• ONE OF THE MOST NOTABLE GENDER DIFFERENCES ON SEXUAL
DESIRE WAS THAT WOMEN PLACE GREAT EMPHASIS ON
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS AS PART OF THE EXPERIENCE.
MALES, ON THE OTHER HAND, ENJOY A MORE CASUAL SEXUAL
BEHAVIOR.
• ALTERNATIVELY, SOME RESEARCHERS ATTRIBUTED THAT DUE
TO THE DIFFERENT EVOLUTIONARY PRESSURES MEN AND WOMEN
FACE THROUGH TIME EARLY HUMAN FEMALES PRACTICED
SELECTIVE MATING WITH CAREFULLY CHOSEN MALES TO ACHIEVE
MAXIMUM REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS, WHILE NO SUCH PRESSURE
WAS EVIDENT ON MEN. THIS MAY HAVE FAVORED THE EVOLUTION OF
STRONGER SEXUAL DESIRES IN MEN THAN IN WOMEN.

(PSYCHOLOGY.IRESEARCHNET.COM,©2017)
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
MOTIVATION

• MUCH OF WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS THAT UNDERLIE

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND MOTIVATION COMES FROM ANIMAL RESEARCH. THE
HYPOTHALAMUS PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN MOTIVATED BEHAVIORS, AND SEX IS NO
EXCEPTION. LABORATORY RATS THAT WERE PHYSIOLOGICALLY INCAPABLE OF
COUPLING WERE OBSERVED TO NEVERTHELESS SEEK RECEPTIVE FEMALES. THIS
FINDING SUGGESTED THAT THE ABILITY TO ENGAGE IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND THE
MOTIVATION TO DO SO MAY BE MEDIATED BY DIFFERENT SYSTEMS IN THE BRAIN.
• ANIMAL RESEARCH SUGGESTS THAT LIMBIC SYSTEM STRUCTURES SUCH AS THE
AMYGDALA AND NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS ARE ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT FOR SEXUAL
MOTIVATION.
• AMYGDALA IS THE INTEGRATIVE
CENTER FOR EMOTIONS,
EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR, AND
MOTIVATION.
• NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS (ALSO
REFERRED TO AS THE PLEASURE
CENTER) PLAYS A ROLE IN
MOTIVATION AND COGNITIVE
PROCESSING OF AVERSION. IT HAS A
SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN RESPONSE TO
REWARD AND REINFORCING
EFFECTS, TRANSLATING EMOTIONAL
STIMULUS INTO BEHAVIORS.
 THE DIVERSITY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
• LIKE FOOD, SEX IS AN IMPORTANT PART OF OUR LIVES. FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE, THE REASON IS
OBVIOUS - PERPETUATION OF THE SPECIES. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN HUMANS, HOWEVER, INVOLVES MUCH MORE THAN
REPRODUCTION.

• SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS DEFINED AS AN INDIVIDUAL’S GENERAL SEXUAL DISPOSITION TOWARD PARTNERS OF

THE SAME SEX, THE OPPOSITE SEX, OR BOTH SEXES. THERE HAS BEEN MUCH INTEREST IN SEXUAL DESIRE AS AN
INDEX OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION. HISTORICALLY, THE MOST IMPORTANT INDICATOR OF SAME-SEX (I.E., GAY, LESBIAN, OR
BISEXUAL) ORIENTATION WAS SAME-SEX SEXUAL DESIRE. CONTEMPORARY SCIENTIFIC STUDIES, HOWEVER, FOUND
THAT SAME-SEX DESIRE AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION ARE MORE COMPLICATED THAN PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT.

• PAST STUDIES THOUGHT THAT GAY, LESBIAN, AND BISEXUAL INDIVIDUALS WERE THE ONLY PEOPLE WHO EVER
EXPERIENCED SAME-SEX SEXUAL DESIRES. IT WAS FOUND THOUGH THAT COMPLETELY HETEROSEXUAL PERSONS
PERIODICALLY EXPERIENCE SAME-SEX SEXUAL DESIRES, EVEN IF THEY HAVE LITTLE MOTIVATION TO ACT ON THOSE
DESIRES. IT ALSO DID NOT APPEAR TO INDICATE THAT A COMPLETELY HETEROSEXUAL INDIVIDUAL WILL EVENTUALLY
WANT TO PURSUE SAME-SEX SEXUAL BEHAVIOR OR WILL EVENTUALLY CONSIDER HIMSELF OR HERSELF LESBIAN, GAY,
OR BISEXUAL.

• THUS, RESEARCHERS NOW GENERALLY BELIEVE THAT LESBIAN, GAY, AND BISEXUAL ORIENTATIONS ARE
CHARACTERIZED BY PERSISTENT AND INTENSE EXPERIENCES OF SAME-SEX DESIRE THAT ARE STABLE OVER TIME.
 GENDER IDENTITY
• MANY PEOPLE FUSE SEXUAL ORIENTATION WITH GENDER IDENTITY INTO ONE
GROUP BECAUSE OF STEREOTYPICAL ATTITUDES THAT EXIST ABOUT
HOMOSEXUALITY. IN REALITY, ALTHOUGH THESE ARE TWO RELATED, THEY ARE
ACTUALLY DIFFERENT ISSUES. SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS A PERSON’S EMOTIONAL
AND EROTIC ATTRACTION TOWARD ANOTHER INDIVIDUAL. ON THE OTHER HAND,
GENDER IDENTITY REFERS TO ONE’S SENSE OF BEING MALE OR FEMALE.
GENERALLY, OUR GENDER IDENTITIES CORRESPOND TO OUR CHROMOSOMAL
AND PHENOTYPIC SEX, BUT THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE.
 WHAT IS LGBTQ+?
• LGBTQ+ IS AN UMBRELLA TERM FOR A WIDE SPECTRUM OF GENDER IDENTITIES, SEXUAL ORIENTATIONS AND ROMANTIC
ORIENTATIONS.

• L STANDS FOR LESBIAN. THESE ARE FEMALES WHO ARE EXCLUSIVELY ATTRACTED TO WOMEN.

• G STANDS FOR GAY. THIS CAN REFER TO MALES WHO ARE EXCLUSIVELY ATTRACTED TO OTHER MALES. IT CAN ALSO REFER TO
ANYONE WHO IS ATTRACTED TO HIS OR HER SAME GENDER.

• B STANDS FOR BISEXUAL OR SOMEONE WHO IS SEXUALLY/ROMANTICALLY ATTRACTED TO BOTH MEN AND WOMEN.

• T OR TRANS*/TRANSGENDER IS AN UMBRELLA TERM FOR PEOPLE WHO DO NOT IDENTIFY WITH THE GENDER ASSIGNED TO THEM AT
BIRTH. TRANS WOMAN IS AN IDENTITY LABEL ADAPTED BY MALE TO FEMALE TRANS PEOPLE TO SIGNIFY THAT THEY IDENTIFY
THEMSELVES AS WOMEN. A TRANS MAN IS AN IDENTITY LABEL ADAPTED BY FEMALE TO MALE TRANS PEOPLE TO SIGNIFY THAT THEY
IDENTIFY THEMSELVES AS MEN.

• Q STANDS FOR QUEER. IT IS A USEFUL TERM FOR THOSE WHO ARE QUESTIONING THEIR IDENTITIES AND ARE UNSURE ABOUT
USING MORE SPECIFIC TERMS, OR THOSE WHO SIMPLY DO NOT WISH TO LABEL THEMSELVES AND PREFER TO USE A BROADER
UMBRELLA TERM.

• +THE PLUS IS THERE TO SIGNIFY THAT MANY IDENTITIES ARE NOT EXPLICITLY REPRESENTED BY THE LETTERS. THIS INCLUDES (BUT
IS NOT LIMITED TO) INTERSEX OR PEOPLE WHO ARE BORN WITH A MIX OF MALE AND FEMALE BIOLOGICAL TRAITS THAT CAN MAKE IT
HARD FOR DOCTORS TO ASSIGN THEM A MALE OR FEMALE SEX; AND ASEXUAL OR A PERSON WHO IS NOT INTERESTED IN OR DOES
NOT DESIRE SEXUAL ACTIVITY.
 SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY ISSUES
• THERE’S A LOT MORE TO BEING MALE, FEMALE, OR ANY GENDER THAN THE SEX ASSIGNED AT BIRTH. YOUR
BIOLOGICAL OR ASSIGNED SEX DOES NOT ALWAYS TELL YOUR COMPLETE STORY.

• SEX IS A LABEL — MALE OR FEMALE — THAT YOU’RE ASSIGNED BY A DOCTOR AT BIRTH BASED ON THE GENITALS
YOU’RE BORN WITH AND THE CHROMOSOMES YOU HAVE. IT GOES ON YOUR BIRTH CERTIFICATE.

• GENDER IS DEFINED BY FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS AS “THE RELATIONS
BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN, BOTH PERCEPTUAL AND MATERIAL. GENDER IS NOT DETERMINED BIOLOGICALLY, AS A
RESULT OF SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EITHER WOMEN OR MEN, BUT IS CONSTRUCTED SOCIALLY. IT IS A CENTRAL
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE OF SOCIETIES, AND OFTEN GOVERNS THE PROCESSES OF PRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTION,
CONSUMPTION AND DISTRIBUTION” (FAO, 1997).

• ACCORDING TO THE UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, GENDER IDENTITY IS ONE'S INNERMOST
CONCEPT OF SELF AS MALE, FEMALE, A BLEND OF BOTH OR NEITHER – HOW INDIVIDUALS PERCEIVE THEMSELVES AND
WHAT THEY CALL THEMSELVES. ONE'S GENDER IDENTITY CAN BE THE SAME OR DIFFERENT FROM THEIR SEX ASSIGNED AT
BIRTH. ON THE OTHER HAND, SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS AN INHERENT OR IMMUTABLE ENDURING EMOTIONAL, ROMANTIC
OR SEXUAL ATTRACTION TO OTHER PEOPLE. THIS ATTRACTION CAN BE FOR SOMEONE FROM THE SAME SEX OR
SOMEONE FROM THE OPPOSITE SEX.
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
• INFLUENCE THE VARIOUS ISSUES RELATED TO SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY.
FOR EXAMPLE, THE PHILIPPINES AND MOST OF ITS SOUTH EAST ASIAN NEIGHBORS VIEW
HETEROSEXUALITY AS THE NORM. HOWEVER, THERE ARE COUNTRIES THAT ARE
CULTURALLY NOT AS RESTRICTIVE WITH THEIR HUMAN SEXUAL/ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS
ATTITUDES. FOR EXAMPLE, IN NEW GUINEA, YOUNG BOYS ARE EXPECTED TO ENGAGE IN
SEXUAL BEHAVIOR WITH OTHER BOYS FOR A GIVEN PERIOD BECAUSE IT IS BELIEVED THAT
DOING SO IS NECESSARY FOR THESE BOYS TO BECOME MEN (BALDWIN & BALDWIN, 1989). IN
THE PHILIPPINES, AN INDIVIDUAL IS CLASSIFIED AS EITHER MALE OR FEMALE ONLY.
HOWEVER, THAILAND RECOGNIZES MORE THAN TWO CATEGORIES – MALE, FEMALE, AND
KATHOEY. A KATHOEY IS AN INDIVIDUAL WHO WOULD BE DESCRIBED AS TRANSGENDER IN
WESTERN CULTURES (TANGMUNKONGVORAKUL, BANWELL, CARMICHAEL, UTOMO, & SLEIGH,
2010).
FAMILY INFLUENCES

• THERE ARE ALSO STUDIES THAT ASSERTED HOW CHILDREN'S UPBRINGING AND SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENTS INFLUENCES THEIR DEVELOPING GENDER IDENTITIES. IN SUMMARY,
THIS WORK FOUND THAT CHILDREN'S INTERESTS, PREFERENCES, BEHAVIORS AND
OVERALL SELF-CONCEPT ARE STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY PARENTAL AND AUTHORITY
FIGURE TEACHINGS REGARDING SEXUAL STEREOTYPES. THUS, CHILDREN WHOSE
PARENTS ADHERE TO STRICT GENDER-STEREOTYPED ROLES ARE, IN GENERAL, MORE
LIKELY TO TAKE ON THOSE ROLES THEMSELVES AS ADULTS THAN ARE PEERS WHOSE
PARENTS PROVIDED LESS STEREOTYPED, MORE NEUTRAL MODELS FOR BEHAVING.
URBAN SETTING
• ANOTHER RESEARCH ALSO DISCOVERED THAT HOMOSEXUALITY POSITIVELY
CORRELATED WITH URBANIZATION. THE CORRELATION THOUGH WAS MORE
SUBSTANTIAL IN MEN THAN IN WOMEN. THE STUDY SURMISED THAT LARGE CITIES
SEEM TO PROVIDE A FRIENDLIER ENVIRONMENT FOR SAME-GENDER INTEREST TO
DEVELOP AND BE EXPRESSED (LAUMANN, ET AL., 1994) THAN IN RURAL AREAS. THESE
CITIES HOST VENUES OR AREAS WHERE PEOPLE WITH SPECIFIC SEXUAL
ORIENTATIONS SOCIALIZE AND BECOME A SUPPORT GROUP. THE NUMBER OF GAYS AND
LESBIANS RESIDING IN LARGE CITIES MAY FUNCTION PROTECTIVELY TO GENERATE
RESILIENCY AMONG THE LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY IN THE FACE OF STIGMATIZATION,
DISCRIMINATION, AND HARASSMENT THUS POTENTIALLY RESULTING TO POSITIVE
CONSEQUENCES FOR THEIR WELLBEING.
ON THE OTHER HAND, EXISTING LITERATURE HIGHLIGHTED THAT THE CHALLENGES OF
RURAL LIVING FOR LGBTQ+ PEOPLE ARE:

• HIGH LEVELS OF INTOLERANCE

• LIMITED SOCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORTS
• HIGHER INCIDENCE OF SOCIAL ISOLATION
• THERE ARE STUDIES THAT ALSO COUNTERED THE POPULAR NOTION OF URBAN
VERSUS RURAL LIVING FOR THE LGBTQ+ - THAT IS, RURAL LIFE IS ACTUALLY MORE
BENEFICIAL TO THEIR WELL-BEING THAN URBAN LIFE. HOWEVER, THESE STUDIES ARE
NEWER AND LESS SUPPORTED THAN EXISTING LITERATURE ON LGBTQ+ LIFE,
CHALLENGES, AND ISSUES.
HISTORY OF SEXUAL ABUSE

• PREVIOUS PUBLISHED STUDIES CLAIMED THAT ABUSED ADOLESCENTS, PARTICULARLY

THOSE VICTIMIZED BY MALES, ARE MORE LIKELY TO BECOME HOMOSEXUAL OR
BISEXUAL IN ADULTHOOD. THESE STUDIES WERE CRITICIZED FOR BEING NON-CLINICAL
AND UNRELIABLE. OTHER FINDINGS SUGGEST NO SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP THAT
CHILD ABUSE IS A CAUSE IN SAME-SEX SEXUAL ORIENTATION IN ADULTHOOD (WILSON
AND WISDOM, 2009).
 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STD’S)

WHAT ARE STD’S? STD STANDS FOR SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES. IT IS

ALSO KNOWN AS STI OR SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION. IN GENERAL, STD IS
A DISEASE OR INFECTION ACQUIRED THROUGH SEXUAL CONTACT WHERE THE
ORGANISMS THAT CAUSE STD WERE PASSED ON FROM PERSON TO PERSON IN
BLOOD, SEMEN, AND VAGINAL OR OTHER BODILY FLUIDS.
• STD CAN ALSO BE TRANSMITTED NON-SEXUALLY SUCH AS:
• FROM MOTHER TO INFANT DURING PREGNANCY
• BLOOD TRANSFUSION, AND
• PEOPLE SHARE NEEDLES FOR INJECTION
• IT IS POSSIBLE TO CONTRACT SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
FROM PEOPLE WHO SEEM PERFECTLY HEALTHY, AND WHO MAY
NOT EVEN BE AWARE OF THE INFECTION. STDS DO NOT ALWAYS
CAUSE SYMPTOMS, WHICH IS ONE OF THE REASONS EXPERTS
PREFER THE TERM "SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS" TO
"SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES."
 Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012
An Act providing for a national policy on Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health

Citation Republic Act No. 10354

Enacted by House of Representatives of the Philippines

Date enacted December 19, 2012

Enacted by Senate of the Philippines

Date enacted December 19, 2012

Date signed December 21, 2012

Signed by Miriam Defensor Santiago

Date commenced January 17, 2013

• THE RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ACT OF 2012 (REPUBLIC
ACT NO. 10354), INFORMALLY KNOWN AS THE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH LAW OR RH LAW.
IT IS A LAW IN THE PHILIPPINES THAT GUARANTEES ACCESS TO CONTRACEPTIVE
METHODS SUCH (I.E. FERTILITY CONTROL), SEXUAL EDUCATION, AND MATERNAL CARE.
PASSAGE OF THE LEGISLATION WAS CONTROVERSIAL AND HIGHLY DIVISIVE. EXPERTS,
ACADEMICS, RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS, AND MAJOR POLITICAL FIGURES DECLARED
SUPPORT OR OPPOSITION WHILE IT WAS JUST A BILL. AFTER THE (THEN) RH BILL WAS
PASSES INTO LAW, THE SUPREME COURT DELAYED ITS IMPLEMENTATION IN RESPONSE
TO CHALLENGES. ON APRIL 8, 2014, THE COURT RULED THAT THE LAW WAS "NOT
UNCONSTITUTIONAL" BUT STRUCK DOWN EIGHT PROVISIONS PARTIALLY OR IN FULL.
Ms Roman, 49, was schooled at the Ateneo de Manila University for grade school and high school, and at the University of
the Philippines for her college.
2016, she campaigned and won, becoming the country’s first public transgender politician. Congressman of Bataan
 GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES OF REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH LAW
• REDUCE BY THREE QUARTERS, BETWEEN 1990 AND 2015, THE MATERNAL MORTALITY RATIO.

• REDUCE BY TWO THIRDS, BETWEEN 1990 AND 2015, THE UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY RATE.

• TO HAVE HALTED BY 2015 AND BEGUN TO REVERSE, THE SPREAD OF HIV/AIDS.

• REGIONAL OBJECTIVES:

• IMPROVE ACCESS TO THE FULL RANGE OF AFFORDABLE, EQUITABLE AND HIGH-QUALITY FAMILY PLANNING AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
SERVICES TO INCREASE CONTRACEPTIVE USE RATE AND REDUCE UNWANTED PREGNANCIES AND ABORTIONS.

• MAKING PREGNANCY SAFER.

• SUPPORT COUNTRIES AND AREAS IN DEVELOPING EVIDENCE-BASED POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR THE REDUCTION OF MATERNAL AND
NEWBORN MORTALITY.

• IMPROVE ACCESS TO THE FULL RANGE OF AFFORDABLE, EQUITABLE AND HIGH-QUALITY FAMILY PLANNING AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
SERVICES TO INCREASE CONTRACEPTIVE USE RATE AND REDUCE UNWANTED PREGNANCIES.

• IMPROVE THE HEALTH AND NUTRITION STATUS OF WOMEN OF ALL AGES, ESPECIALLY PREGNANT AND NURSING WOMEN.

• GENDER, WOMEN AND HEALTH:

• INTEGRATE GENDER AND RIGHTS CONSIDERATIONS INTO HEALTH POLICY AND PROGRAMS, ESPECIALLY INTO REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
AND MATERNAL HEALTH CARE.

• IMPROVE THE HEALTH AND NUTRITION STATUS OF WOMEN OF ALL AGES

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF FAMILY PLANNING

• FAMILY PLANNING ALLOWS BOTH MEN AND WOMEN TO MAKE INFORMED

CHOICES ON WHEN AND IF THEY DECIDE TO HAVE CHILDREN. KNOWING BOTH
THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FAMILY PLANNING METHODS MAY
HELP YOU DECIDE WHAT OPTION IS RIGHT FOR YOU.
 METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION:
• LONG-ACTING REVERSIBLE CONTRACEPTION, SUCH AS THE IMPLANT OR INTRA
UTERINE DEVICE (IUD)
• HORMONAL CONTRACEPTION, SUCH THE BIRTH CONTROL PILL AND THE BIRTH
CONTROL INJECTION
• BARRIER METHODS, SUCH AS CONDOMS
• EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION
• FERTILITY AWARENESS
• PERMANENT CONTRACEPTION, SUCH AS VASECTOMY AND TUBAL LIGATION
 BENEFITS OF FAMILY PLANNING / CONTRACEPTION
ACCORDING TO THE WHO

• PREVENT PREGNANCY-RELATED HEALTH RISKS IN WOMEN

• REDUCE INFANT MORTALITY
• HELP PREVENT HIV/AIDS
• EMPOWER PEOPLE AND ENHANCE EDUCATION
• REDUCE ADOLESCENT PREGNANCIES
• SLOWING POPULATION GROWTH
• BENEFITS OF USING FAMILY PLANNING ACCORDING TO DOH

• FAMILY PLANNING PROVIDES MANY BENEFITS TO MOTHER, CHILDREN, FATHER, AND THE FAMILY.

• MOTHER

• ENABLES HER TO REGAIN HER HEALTH AFTER DELIVERY

• GIVES ENOUGH TIME AND OPPORTUNITY TO LOVE AND PROVIDE ATTENTION TO HER HUSBAND AND CHILDREN

• GIVES MORE TIME FOR HER FAMILY AND OWN PERSONAL ADVANCEMENT

• WHEN SUFFERING FROM AN ILLNESS, GIVES ENOUGH TIME FOR TREATMENT AND RECOVERY

• CHILDREN

• HEALTHY MOTHERS PRODUCE HEALTHY CHILDREN

• WILL GET ALL THE ATTENTION, SECURITY, LOVE, AND CARE THEY DESERVE

• FATHER

• LIGHTENS THE BURDEN AND RESPONSIBILITY IN SUPPORTING HIS FAMILY

• ENABLES HIM TO GIVE HIS CHILDREN THEIR BASIC NEEDS (FOOD, SHELTER, EDUCATION, AND BETTER FUTURE)

• GIVES HIM TIME FOR HIS FAMILY AND OWN PERSONAL ADVANCEMENT

• WHEN SUFFERING FROM AN ILLNESS, GIVES ENOUGH TIME FOR TREATMENT AND RECOVERY
 DISADVANTAGES
• BIRTH CONTROL HEALTH RISKS

• SOME FORMS OF BIRTH CONTROL POSE HEALTH CONCERNS FOR WOMEN AND MEN, SUCH AS ALLERGIES TO
SPERMICIDES OR LATEX. FOR SOME WOMEN, ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES CAN LEAD TO HAIR LOSS AND WEIGHT GAIN,
AND THE USE OF DIAPHRAGMS CAN LEAD TO URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS.

• POSSIBILITY OF PREGNANCY

• FAMILY PLANNING METHODS ARE NOT ONE HUNDRED PERCENT RELIABLE. OTHER THAN ABSTINENCE, THERE IS NO
BIRTH CONTROL METHOD(INCLUDING THE NATURAL RHYTHM METHOD) THAT IS COMPLETELY EFFECTIVE. COUPLES
WHO ARE ENGAGING IN SEXUAL ACTIVITY SHOULD ALWAYS CONSIDER THE POSSIBILITY OF AN UNEXPECTED
PREGNANCY.

• PREGNANCY AFTER BIRTH CONTROL

• ALL BODIES ARE DIFFERENT. THERE IS NO WAY TO KNOW HOW LONG IT WILL TAKE A WOMAN TO CONCEIVE, AND THAT
IS TRUE WHETHER YOU HAVE BEEN USING BIRTH CONTROL OR NOT. IT IS POSSIBLE TO GET PREGNANT ALMOST RIGHT
AWAY AFTER STOPPING HORMONAL CONTRACEPTIVES SUCH AS BIRTH CONTROL PILLS OR AFTER HAVING THE IUD
REMOVED. ON THE OTHER HAND, IT MIGHT TAKE MONTHS FOR OVULATION AND THE MENSTRUAL PERIOD TO RETURN
TO NORMAL. HOW LONG THE MENSTRUAL PERIOD TAKES TO RETURN TO ITS NORMAL CYCLE IS ENTIRELY INDIVIDUAL,
AND HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH HOW LONG THE WOMAN HAS BEEN USING BIRTH CONTROL. THE MOST IMPORTANT
THING TO KNOW ABOUT STOPPING YOUR PREFERRED METHOD OF BIRTH CONTROL IS THAT OVULATION CAN RETURN
IMMEDIATELY. HENCE, A WOMAN CAN GET PREGNANT RIGHT AWAY.
• THE NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHOD
• NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING (NFP) IS THE METHOD THAT USES THE BODY’S NATURAL PHYSIOLOGICAL
CHANGES AND SYMPTOMS TO IDENTIFY THE FERTILE AND INFERTILE PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE. SUCH
METHODS ARE ALSO KNOWN AS FERTILITY-BASED AWARENESS METHODS.
• ONCE A MONTH AN EGG IS RELEASED FROM ONE OF A WOMAN’S OVARIES (OVULATION). IT CAN STAY
ALIVE IN THE UTERUS FOR ABOUT 24 HOURS. MEN CAN ALWAYS PRODUCE SPERM CELLS, AND THESE CAN STAY
ALIVE IN THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM FOR ABOUT TWO TO FIVE DAYS AFTER BEING DEPOSITED IN THE
VAGINA DURING SEXUAL INTERCOURSE. THIS MEANS WOMEN HAVE CERTAIN TIME DURING THEIR CYCLE WHEN
THEY ARE UNLIKELY TO CONCEIVE, WHEREAS MEN HAVE NO ‘SAFE PERIOD’.
• NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS ARE GENERALLY THE PREFERRED CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD FOR
WOMEN WHO DO NOT WISH TO USE ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION FOR REASONS OF RELIGION; OR
WHO, DUE TO RUMORS AND MYTHS, FEAR OTHER METHODS.
• HOWEVER, NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS ARE UNRELIABLE IN PREVENTING UNWANTED
PREGNANCY. IT ALSO TAKES TIME TO PRACTICE AND USE NFP PROPERLY; AND THIS ADDS TO ITS UNRELIABILITY.
MOREOVER, NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS DO NOT PROTECT A PERSON AGAINST SEXUALLY
TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS), INCLUDING THE HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV).
• THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ANY METHOD OF NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING VARIES FROM COUPLE TO
COUPLE. ALL THESE METHODS BECOME LESS EFFECTIVE IF COUPLES DO NOT FOLLOW THE METHOD
CAREFULLY.
TYPES OF NATURAL FAMILY
PLANNING METHODS

• PERIODIC ABSTINENCE (FERTILITY AWARENESS) METHOD

• USE OF BREASTFEEDING OR LACTATIONAL AMENORRHOEA METHOD (LAM)
• COITUS INTERRUPTUS (WITHDRAWAL OR PULLING OUT) METHOD
PERIODIC ABSTINENCE (FERTILITY AWARENESS)
METHODS
• DURING THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE, THE FEMALE HORMONES ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE CAUSE SOME
OBSERVABLE EFFECTS. OBSERVATION OF THESE CHANGES PROVIDES A BASIS FOR PERIODIC ABSTINENCE
METHODS. THERE ARE THREE COMMON TECHNIQUES USED IN PERIODIC ABSTINENCE METHODS, NAMELY:

• RHYTHM (CALENDAR) METHOD

• BASAL BODY TEMPERATURE (BBT) MONITORING

• CERVICAL MUCUS (OVULATION) METHOD

• WITH RHYTHM (CALENDAR) METHOD, THE COUPLE TRACKS THE WOMAN’S MENSTRUAL HISTORY TO PREDICT
SHE WILL OVULATE. THIS HELPS THE COUPLE DETERMINE WHEN THEY WILL MOST LIKELY CONCEIVE. BASAL
BODY TEMPERATURE MONITORING IS A CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD THAT RELIES ON MONITORING A WOMAN’S
BASAL BODY TEMPERATURE ON A DAILY BASIS. A WOMAN’S BODY TEMPERATURE CHANGES THROUGHOUT THE
MENSTRUAL CYCLE AND CHANGES IN BODY TEMPERATURE COINCIDE WITH HORMONAL CHANGES. THIS
INDICATES FERTILE AND NON-FERTILE STAGES OF THE CYCLE. BY MONITORING TEMPERATURE EVERY DAY, A
WOMAN CAN DETERMINE THE PERIODS OF HER MENSTRUAL CYCLE WHEN SHE IS, OR IS NOT, FERTILE. THE
CERVICAL MUCUS (OVULATION) METHOD, ALSO CALLED THE BILLING’S METHOD AS THIS WAS DEVISED BY DRS.
JOHN AND EVELYN BILLINGS IN THE 1960S, INVOLVES EXAMINING THE COLOR AND VISCOSITY OF THE CERVICAL
MUCUS TO DISCOVER WHEN OVULATION IS OCCURRING.
• LACTATION AMENORRHEA METHOD
• THROUGH EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING, THE WOMAN IS ABLE TO SUPPRESS
OVULATION. THIS METHOD IS CALLED LACTATION AMENORRHEA METHOD. HOWEVER, IF THE
INFANT WERE NOT EXCLUSIVELY BREASTFED, THIS METHOD WOULD NOT BE AN EFFECTIVE
BIRTH CONTROL METHOD. GENERALLY, AFTER THREE MONTHS OF EXCLUSIVE
BREASTFEEDING, A WOMAN MUST CHOOSE ANOTHER METHOD OF CONTRACEPTION.
• COITUS INTERRUPTUS
• THIS IS ONE OF THE OLDEST METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION. THE COUPLE PROCEEDS
WITH COITUS; HOWEVER, THE MAN MUST RELEASE HIS SPERM OUTSIDE OF THE VAGINA.
HENCE, HE MUST WITHDRAW HIS PENIS THE MOMENT HE EJACULATES. THIS METHOD IS
ONLY 75% EFFECTIVE BECAUSE PRE-EJACULATION FLUID THAT CONTAINS A FEW
SPERMATOZOA MAY CAUSE FERTILIZATION.
• HORMONAL CONTRACEPTION/ARTIFICIAL FAMILY PLANNING
• HORMONAL CONTRACEPTIVES ARE AN EFFECTIVE FAMILY PLANNING METHOD THAT
MANIPULATES THE HORMONES THAT DIRECTLY AFFECT THE NORMAL MENSTRUAL CYCLE SO
THAT OVULATION WILL NOT OCCUR.
• ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

• IT IS ALSO KNOWN AS THE PILL. ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES CONTAIN SYNTHETIC ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE.• ESTROGEN
SUPPRESSES OVULATION, WHILE PROGESTERONE DECREASES THE PERMEABILITY OF THE CERVICAL MUCUS TO LIMIT THE SPERM’S
ACCESS TO THE OVA.

• TRANSDERMAL CONTRACEPTIVE PATCH

• A TRANSDERMAL PATCH IS A MEDICATED ADHESIVE PATCH THAT IS PLACED ON THE SKIN TO DELIVER A SPECIFIC DOSE OF
MEDICATION THROUGH THE SKIN AND INTO THE BLOODSTREAM. IN THIS CASE, A TRANSDERMAL CONTRACEPTIVE PATCH HAS A
COMBINATION OF BOTH ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE RELEASED INTO THE BLOODSTREAM TO PREVENT PREGNANCY.

• VAGINAL RING

• IT IS A BIRTH CONTROL RING INSERTED INTO THE VAGINA AND SLOWLY RELEASES HORMONES THROUGH THE VAGINAL WALL INTO
THE BLOODSTREAM TO PREVENT PREGNANCY.

• SUBDERMAL IMPLANTS

• SUBDERMAL CONTRACEPTIVE IMPLANTS INVOLVE THE DELIVERY OF A STEROID PROGESTIN FROM POLYMER CAPSULES OR RODS
PLACED UNDER THE SKIN. THE HORMONE DIFFUSES OUT SLOWLY AT A STABLE RATE, PROVIDING CONTRACEPTIVE EFFECTIVENESS FOR 1-5
YEARS.

• HORMONAL INJECTIONS

• IT IS A CONTRACEPTIVE INJECTION GIVEN ONCE EVERY THREE MONTHS. IT TYPICALLY SUPPRESSES OVULATION, KEEPING THE
OVARIES FROM RELEASING AN EGG. HORMONAL INJECTIONS ALSO THICKENS CERVICAL MUCUS TO KEEP SPERM FROM REACHING THE EGG.
• INTRAUTERINE DEVICE

• AN IUD IS A SMALL, T-SHAPED PLASTIC DEVICE WRAPPED IN COPPER OR CONTAINS HORMONES. A DOCTOR INSERTS THE
IUD INTO THE UTERUS.IUD PREVENTS FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG BY DAMAGING OR KILLING SPERM. IT MAKES THE MUCUS IN THE
CERVIX THICK AND STICKY, SO SPERM CANNOT GET THROUGH TO THE UTERUS. IT ALSO KEEPS THE LINING OF THE UTERUS
(ENDOMETRIUM) FROM GROWING VERY THICK MAKING THE LINING A POOR PLACE FOR A FERTILIZED EGG TO IMPLANT AND GROW.
• CHEMICAL BARRIERS
• CHEMICAL BARRIERS SUCH AS SPERMICIDES, VAGINAL GELS AND CREAMS, AND GLYCERIN FILMS ARE ALSO USED TO
CAUSE THE DEATH OF SPERMS BEFORE THEY CAN ENTER THE CERVIX. IT LOWERS THE PH LEVEL OF THE VAGINA SO IT WILL NOT
BECOME CONDUCIVE FOR THE SPERM. HOWEVER, THESE CHEMICAL BARRIERS CANNOT PREVENT SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
INFECTIONS.
• DIAPHRAGM

• DIAPHRAGMS ARE DOME-SHAPED BARRIER METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION THAT BLOCK SPERM FROM ENTERING THE
UTERUS. THEY ARE MADE OF LATEX (RUBBER) AND FORMED LIKE A SHALLOW CUP. IT IS FILLED WITH SPERMICIDE AND FITTED
OVER THE UTERINE CERVIX.
• CERVICAL CAP

• A CERVICAL CAP IS A SILICONE CUP INSERTED IN THE VAGINA TO COVER THE CERVIX AND KEEP SPERM OUT OF THE
UTERUS. SPERMICIDE IS ADDED TO THE CERVICAL CAP TO KILL ANY SPERM THAT MAY GET INSIDE THE PROTECTIVE BARRIER.
HOWEVER, THIS IS NOT A WIDELY USED METHOD AND FEW HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS RECOMMEND THIS TYPE OF
CONTRACEPTION. THE MOST COMMON SIDE EFFECT FROM USING A CERVICAL CAP IS VAGINAL IRRITATION. SOME WOMEN ALSO
EXPERIENCE AN INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF BLADDER INFECTIONS.
• MALE CONDOMS

• THE MALE CONDOM IS A LATEX OR SYNTHETIC RUBBER SHEATH PLACED ON THE ERECT PENIS BEFORE VAGINAL PENETRATION TO
TRAP THE SPERM DURING EJACULATION. CONDOMS CAN PREVENT STDS.

• FEMALE CONDOMS

• IT IS A THIN POUCH INSERTED INTO THE VAGINA BEFORE SEX SERVING AS PROTECTIVE BARRIER TO PREVENT PREGNANCY AND
PROTECTION FROM SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES, INCLUDING HIV. FEMALE CONDOMS CREATES A BARRIER THAT PREVENTS BODILY
FLUIDS AND SEMEN FROM ENTERING THE VAGINA.

• SURGICAL METHODS

• ONE OF THE MOST EFFECTIVE BIRTH CONTROL METHODS IS THE SURGICAL METHOD. THIS METHOD ENSURES CONCEPTION IS
INHIBITED PERMANENTLY AFTER THE SURGERY.

• TWO KINDS OF SURGICAL METHODS:

• VASECTOMY

• A SURGICAL OPERATION WHEREIN THE TUBE THAT CARRIES THE SPERM TO A MAN’S PENIS IS CUT. IT IS A PERMANENT MALE
CONTRACEPTION METHOD. THIS PROCEDURE PRESERVES EJACULATION AND DOES NOT CAUSE IMPOTENCE OR ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION
SINCE THE VASECTOMY DOES NOT INVOLVE ANYTHING IN THE PRODUCTION OF TESTOSTERONE.

• TUBAL LIGATION

• IT IS A SURGICAL PROCEDURE FOR FEMALE STERILIZATION INVOLVING SEVERING AND TYING THE FALLOPIAN TUBES. A TUBAL LIGATION
DISRUPTS THE MOVEMENT OF THE EGG TO THE UTERUS FOR FERTILIZATION AND BLOCKS SPERM FROM TRAVELING UP THE FALLOPIAN
TUBES TO THE EGG. A TUBAL LIGATION DOES NOT AFFECT A WOMAN’S MENSTRUAL CYCLE. A TUBAL LIGATION CAN BE DONE AT ANY TIME,
INCLUDING AFTER NORMAL CHILDBIRTH OR A C-SECTION. IT IS POSSIBLE TO REVERSE A TUBAL LIGATION — BUT REVERSAL REQUIRES
MAJOR SURGERY AND IS NOT ALWAYS EFFECTIVE
 THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF

“ONCE A CULTURE BECOMES ENTIRELY ADVERTISING FRIENDLY, IT SEIZES TO BE A

CULTURE AT ALL.”

― MARK CRISPIN MILLER

• PROCEDURES:
1. LET EACH STUDENT SHARE WHY THEY CHOOSE TO HAVE HAIR COLOR, SHORT OR LONG HAIR;
2. THEN THEIR FOOD PREFERENCES;
3. THEIR TYPE OF WARDROBES; AND
4. STATUS THAT THEY POST

• IN THIS AGE OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY, EVERYTHING IN OUR SOCIETY IS BASED UPON THE IDEA THAT
CONSUMPTION SHOULD BE AS EASY AS POSSIBLE. WE SAY, “MONEY MAKES THE WORLD GO ROUND”. WE
TAKE INSTANTANEOUS LOANS USING OUR CELLPHONES, AND NOT MANY MINUTES OF OUR LIVES PASS
BY WITHOUT SOME KIND OF COMMERCIAL MESSAGE BARRAGING OUR CONSCIOUSNESS. THESE ADS
CARRY THE MESSAGE THAT WE BECOME HAPPY BY BUYING, BUYING, BUYING. OFTEN WE EVEN
CONSUME JUST FOR THE SAKE OF CONSUMING. SHOPPING HAS BECOME LEISURE AND A WAY TO PASS
TIME. OUR HOMES AND OUR LIVES ARE MORE THAN FULL WITH THINGS, STUFF, GADGETS, WIDGETS,
DEVICES, ETCETERA. CONSEQUENTLY, OUR CONSUMPTION ALSO CONTRIBUTES TO OUR GARBAGE
PROBLEMS, POLLUTION, AND THE DEPLETION OF OUR NATURAL RESOURCES.
I SHOP THEREFORE I AM: I HAVE, THEREFORE I AM?
• IN THE “I SHOP THEREFORE I AM” TREND REPORT WE ARE LOOKING INTO THE WORLD OF
CONSUMER CULTURE. SHOPPING HAS TURNED INTO A LIFESTYLE. AT WHAT POINT DOES THE
ACCUMULATION OF MATERIAL GOODS BECOME LESS FULFILLING AND MORE STRESSFUL AND
OVERWHELMING? PEOPLE ARE SLOWLY REALIZING THAT THE POWER OF CONSUMPTION IS STOPPING US
FROM FINDING TRUE AND SINCERE HAPPINESS; AND THAT SHOPPING OFTEN WORKS AS A SUBSTITUTE
FOR SOMETHING THAT YOU ARE MISSING IN LIFE. AS A PRIMARY CONSUMER, THE ISSUE IS ABOUT WHAT
YOU BUY AND WHAT YOU CHOOSE TO INVEST IN.
CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION
• “CONSUME” IS DEFINED AS “USE UP, TO SPEND WASTEFULLY, TO DESTROY” (GUSDORF, 1978). THE
DEFINITION SHOWS THAT CONSUMPTION HAS A NEGATIVE CONNOTATION. THERE IS HOWEVER A
POSITIVE SIDE TO CONSUMPTION WHICH IS OFTEN NEGLECTED.
• BEHIND CONSUMPTION, THERE IS PRODUCTION. CONSUMERS KEEP COMPANIES ALIVE. THESE
COMPANIES PAY PEOPLE WHOSE EARNINGS PUT FOOD ON THE TABLE. SUCH IS THE PATTERN OF
CONSUMPTION. THUS, IT CANNOT BE DENIED THAT CONSUMPTION IS IMPORTANT.
CONSCIOUS CONSUMPTION
• CONSUMERS ARE OFTEN PORTRAYED AS “VICTIMS”, EXPLOITED BY GREEDY
COMPANIES. HOWEVER, YOU SHOULD TAKE NOTE THAT EVERY PERSON HAS “FREE
WILL”. THEREFORE, CHOICES ARE IMPORTANT. AS A CONSUMER, FREE WILL
COMES WITH RESPONSIBILITY AND OBLIGATION. CONSCIOUS CONSUMPTION IS ABOUT
PRACTICING RESPONSIBLE BUYING HABITS.

PSYCHOLOGICAL/SOCIOLOGICAL CONSUMPTION
• AS MENTIONED EARLIER, FOR MANY PEOPLE THESE DAYS (WITH THE YOUNGER
GENERATION THE VULNERABLE GROUP) HAPPINESS SEEMS ATTACHED TO BUYING
SOMETHING. CONSUMPTION HAS BECOME AN ADDICTION. MANY PEOPLE HAVE
FORGOTTEN THERE ARE THINGS IN LIFE THAT CAN BRING TRUE AND LASTING
HAPPINESS SUCH AS SPENDING TIME WITH FAMILY AND/OR FRIENDS; TO HAVE “ME”
TIME; ENJOY NATURE; TO READ, ETCETERA.
IDENTITY AND CONSUMER CULTURE
MACH (1993, P.7) ARGUED THAT IDENTITY IS A
SYMBOLIC IDEA. IT IS AN IMAGE WE BUILD FOR
OURSELVES THOUGH SOCIAL INTERACTION.
THUS, A PERSON’S IDENTITY IS DYNAMIC AND
CONTEXT-DEPENDENT. IT IS IMPROVED
THROUGH COMMUNICATION WITH OTHERS AND
THROUGH DIFFERENT WAYS THAT A PERSON
INTERACTS WITHIN THE CULTURAL
ATMOSPHERE AND SOCIAL RELATIONS.
• FACTORS THAT AFFECT IDENTITY:
• SOCIAL RELATIONS OF POWER
• SYMBOLIC IMAGE OF THE WORLD
• “IDENTITY” AS WE KNOW IT NOW DERIVED MAINLY FROM THE WORK OF PSYCHOLOGIST ERIK ERIKSON IN THE
1950S. IDENTITY MAY REFER TO:

• A SOCIAL CATEGORY DEFINED BY MEMBERSHIP RULES, CHARACTERISTIC ATTRIBUTES, OR EXPECTED

BEHAVIORS.

• SOCIALLY DISTINGUISHING FEATURES THAT AN INDIVIDUAL TAKES PRIDE IN HAVING.

• (FEARON, 1999)

• MEANWHILE, STUDIES HAVE OBSERVED THAT EVERY WAKING MOMENT OF THE MODERN LIFESTYLE HAS
BECOME A CYCLE OF “ALTERNATING TIME-SPACE FOR WORK AND TIME-SPACE FOR CONSUMPTION” (SASSATELLI,
R, 2007, P.3). SLATER (1997) OUTLINED SOME MAIN FEATURES AND CHARACTERS IN CONSUMER CULTURE:

• CONSUMER CULTURE IS A CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION

• CONSUMER CULTURE IS THE CULTURE OF MARKET SOCIETY

• CONSUMER CULTURE IS UNIVERSAL AND IMPERSONAL

• CONSUMER CULTURE IDENTIFIES FREEDOM WITH PRIVATE CHOICE AND LIFE

• CONSUMER NEEDS ARE INSATIABLE AND UNLIMITED

• CONSUMER CULTURE IS PRIVILEGED MEDIUM FOR BUILDING PERSONAL IDENTITY AND STATUS
• AS PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED, CONSUMERISM IS ONE OF THE STRONGEST FORCES
AFFECTING MODERN PEOPLE’S LIVES. THE TERM CONSUMERISM DOES NOT SIMPLY
MEAN THE CONSTANT BARRAGE AND INTRUSION OF ADS IN OUR LIVES, BUT
EVERYTHING THAT IS CONNECTED TO THE MODERN SOCIETY’S IDEA THAT TO BE
HAPPIER AND MORE SUCCESSFUL WE HAVE TO BUY, BUY, AND BUY. WE SLIP INTO A
CYCLE OF WANTING MORE THINGS – TO GET THAT NEW IPHONE MODEL, GET THE
LATEST GADGET, WEAR THE TRENDIEST CLOTHES, HANG OUT IN PLACES WHERE
“COOL” PEOPLE GO, ETCETERA. THE PURSUIT OF THESE THINGS TAKE UP OUR TIME,
ENERGY, AND THE MONEY YOU DO NOT HAVE. YOU ALSO TEND TO COMPARE YOURSELF
TO OTHER PEOPLE. SOCIAL MEDIA REINFORCES THIS TENDENCY. COMPARING
YOURSELF WITH OTHER PEOPLE (WANTING TO BE LIKE THEM OR BE IN THEIR
POSITION) WILL LEAD YOU TO CONSTANTLY FEELING DISSATISFIED AND NEVER HAPPY
WITH WHAT YOU HAVE. THIS IS ALSO WHAT CONSUMERISM WANTS BECAUSE IT MAKES
PEOPLE ACTIVE CONSUMERS ON A REGULAR BASIS. THUS, CONSUMERISM NOT ONLY
AFFECTS YOUR BEHAVIOR, IT ALSO AFFECTS YOUR THINKING PROCESS.
THE PROBLEM WITH CONSUMERISM

• IT IS INTRUSIVE.
• IT IS MANIPULATIVE.
• IT CANNOT PROVIDE MANY OF THE THINGS
THAT ARE IMPORTANT TO US.

• IT RESTRICTS OUR CHOICES AND LIVES.

• IT AFFECTS OUR WORLDVIEWS AND
CHARACTERS.
• IT IS UNSUSTAINABLE.
AVOID THE TRAP
• CONSUMERISM IS INTRINSICALLY WOVEN INTO THE FABRIC OF MODERN SOCIETY.
SOCIETY NEEDS A CULTURAL SHIFT TO MOVE AWAY FROM THE CULTURE OF
CONSUMERISM. HOWEVER, SOCIAL CHANGES DO NOT HAPPEN OVERNIGHT. THEREFORE,
IT IS BEST TO TAKE IMMEDIATE STEPS IN YOUR OWN LIFE TO RELEASE YOURSELF FROM
THE GRIP OF CONSUMERISM.
• EXERCISE INTELLECTUAL INDEPENDENCE. BE AWARE OF HOW CONSUMERISM
CONTROLS YOUR LIFE. TRY TO DEFEND YOURSELF FROM UNWANTED EXTERNAL
PRESSURES. IGNORE ADVERTISING. THINK FOR YOURSELF. QUESTION ALL INFORMATION
GIVEN TO YOU AND START LOOKING FOR INFORMATION YOURSELF.
• CONSUME LESS, LIVE MORE. STOP AND THINK ABOUT THE INFLUENCES OF
CONSUMERISM IN YOUR LIFE. THEN, THINK ABOUT WHAT REALLY MATTERS TO YOU AND
HOW YOU WANT TO LIVE IT. STRIVE TO LIVE THE LIFE YOU WANT, NOT HOW OTHERS
THINK YOU OUGHT TO LIVE.
• PHILOSOPHY STARTED THE MOMENT HUMANS STARTED TO WONDER (WITH JUST
ABOUT ANYTHING). FOR THE LONGEST TIME, HUMANS HAVE PONDERED QUESTIONS
LIKE “WHY DO WE DIE?” WHY BAD THINGS HAPPEN TO GOOD PEOPLE? DO WE REALLY
HAVE FREE WILL? IS THE FUTURE DETERMINED? DOES GOD EXIST?

• AS A COLLEGE STUDENT, IT IS VITAL THAT YOU DEVELOP A HEALTHY SENSE OF

WONDER. PART OF THIS CURIOSITY SHOULD BE ABOUT THE RANGE OF HUMAN BELIEFS.
IT IS IMPORTANT TOO THAT YOU KEEP AN OPEN MIND AS YOU SEEK TO UNDERSTAND
BELIEF SYSTEMS THAT MAY NOT BE THE SAME AS YOURS
SPIRITUAL VERSUS RELIGIOUS
• SPIRITUAL IS DEFINED AS “RELATING TO OR AFFECTING THE HUMAN SPIRIT OR SOUL AS
OPPOSED TO MATERIAL OR PHYSICAL THINGS.” RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY ARE BOTH
PATHS TO GOD. HOWEVER, THEY ARE DIFFERENT IN THEIR APPROACHES. A RELIGIOUS
PERSON IS SOMEONE WHO BELIEVES IN A GOD OR GROUP OF GODS AND
CONSCIOUSLY ADHERES TO THE BELIEFS OF THEIR RELIGION. A SPIRITUAL PERSON ON
THE OTHER HAND, PLACES LITTLE IMPORTANCE ON BELIEFS AND TRADITIONS AND IS
MORE CONCERNED WITH GROWING AND EXPERIENCING THE DIVINE.
• QUITE OFTEN, RELIGION TAKES THE APPROACH OF FEAR. IT EMPHASIZES ON SIN,
GUILT, AND THE CONCEPT OF A PUNISHING GOD. THE SPIRITUAL APPROACH TO GOD IS
THROUGH THE PATH OF LOVE. THIS IS A LOVE WHERE THERE IS NO CONDEMNATION
AND JUDGMENT, BUT THERE IS MERCY AND ACCEPTANCE.
• OFTEN, RELIGION TALKS OF GOD WHO IS HIGH UP IN THE HEAVENS. AT TIMES, GOD IS DEPICTED AS
SEPARATE FROM HUMANITY; WHO IS IMPARTIAL BUT IMPERSONAL. SPIRITUALITY BELIEVES IN GOD WHO
IS OMNIPRESENT AND OMNISCIENT, SOMEONE WHO IS A LIVING PRESENCE IN OUR HEARTS.
• MANY RELIGION FEELS THEIR PATH IS THE ONLY WAY TO SALVATION AND THAT OTHER RELIGIONS
ARE WRONG. HENCE, RELIGIOUS PEOPLE STRONGLY FEEL THE NEED TO CONVERT OTHERS TO THEIR
FAITH. ON THE OTHER HAND, LIKE THE ANALOGY, “DIFFERENT PATHS THAT LEAD TO THE SAME
DESTINATION” SPIRITUALITY FEELS ALL FAITHS ARE VALID. SPIRITUALITY EMBRACES ALL THE WORLD’S
RELIGIONS; BUT AT THE SAME TIME, IS NOT CONSTRAINED BY ANY RELIGIOUS DOGMAS OR FORMS.
• WHY IS SPIRITUALITY IMPORTANT?
• SENSE OF MEANINGLESSNESS AND A LACK OF PURPOSE IN LIFE CAN BE SIGNIFICANT FACTORS IN
CAUSING ANXIETY, DEPRESSION, AND PHOBIAS. HOWEVER, THERE IS A GROWING BODY OF EVIDENCE
INDICATING THAT SPIRITUAL PRACTICES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH BETTER HEALTH AND WELLBEING.
• MANY SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION IN A COMMUNITY. SPIRITUAL FELLOWSHIP
(SUCH AS ATTENDING CHURCH OR A MEDITATION GROUP) CAN BE SOURCES OF SOCIAL SUPPORT THAT
MAY PROVIDE A SENSE OF BELONGING, SECURITY, AND COMMUNITY. STRONG RELATIONSHIPS HAVE
BEEN PROVEN TO INCREASE WELLBEING AND BOLSTER LIFE EXPECTANCY, WHICH IS PERHAPS WHY ONE
STUDY FOUND A STRONG ASSOCIATION BETWEEN CHURCH ATTENDANCE AND IMPROVED HEALTH, MOOD,
AND WELLBEING.
• MANY SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION IN A COMMUNITY.
SPIRITUAL FELLOWSHIP (SUCH AS ATTENDING CHURCH OR A MEDITATION GROUP)
CAN BE SOURCES OF SOCIAL SUPPORT THAT MAY PROVIDE A SENSE OF BELONGING,
SECURITY, AND COMMUNITY. STRONG RELATIONSHIPS HAVE BEEN PROVEN TO
INCREASE WELLBEING AND BOLSTER LIFE EXPECTANCY, WHICH IS PERHAPS WHY
ONE STUDY FOUND A STRONG ASSOCIATION BETWEEN CHURCH ATTENDANCE AND
IMPROVED HEALTH, MOOD, AND WELLBEING.
• CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE IS GOOD FOR YOU. CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE CAN BE BROADLY
UNDERSTOOD AS METHODS TO DEVELOP CONCENTRATION, DEEPEN UNDERSTANDING AND
INSIGHT, AND TO CULTIVATE AWARENESS AND COMPASSION. THESE PRACTICES CAN HAVE A
PROFOUND IMPACT ON A STUDENT’S EXPERIENCE BOTH IN COLLEGE AND BEYOND
EXAMPLE OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES:
• MEDITATION – MENTAL EXERCISE (SUCH AS FOCUSING ON ONE'S BREATHING OR
REPEATING A MANTRA) FOR THE PURPOSE OF REACHING A HEIGHTENED LEVEL OF
SPIRITUAL AWARENESS. IT CAN INDUCE FEELINGS OF CALM AND CLEAR-HEADEDNESS
AS WELL AS IMPROVE CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTION.
• PRAYER - A SPIRITUAL COMMUNION WITH GOD (OR AN OBJECT OF WORSHIP) AS IN
SUPPLICATION, THANKSGIVING, ADORATION, OR CONFESSION. PRAYERS MAY ELICIT
RELAXATION RESPONSE, ALONG WITH FEELINGS OF HOPE, GRATITUDE, AND
COMPASSION — ALL OF WHICH HAVE A POSITIVE EFFECT ON OVERALL WELLBEING.
THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF PRAYER. MANY OF WHICH ARE ROOTED IN THE BELIEF
THAT THERE IS A HIGHER POWER THAT HAS SOME LEVEL OF INFLUENCE OVER YOUR
LIFE. THIS BELIEF CAN PROVIDE A SENSE OF COMFORT AND SUPPORT IN DIFFICULT
TIMES. A RECENT STUDY FOUND THAT CLINICALLY DEPRESSED ADULTS WHO BELIEVED
THEIR PRAYERS WERE HEARD BY GOD (OR A CONCERNED PRESENCE) RESPONDED
MUCH BETTER TO TREATMENT THAN THOSE WHO DID NOT BELIEVE.
• YOGA - A HINDU SPIRITUAL AND ASCETIC DISCIPLINE. IN HINDU THEISTIC
PHILOSOPHY, IT TEACHES THE SUPPRESSION OF ALL MIND AND BODY ACTIVITY
SO THAT THE SELF MAY REALIZE ITS DISTINCTION FROM THE MATERIAL WORLD
AND ATTAIN LIBERATION. HOWEVER, IN WESTERN CULTURE, YOGA IS A SYSTEM
OF PHYSICAL POSTURES, BREATHING TECHNIQUES, AND SOMETIMES
MEDITATION TO PROMOTE PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING.
• JOURNALING IS ANOTHER (BUT OFTEN OVERLOOKED) CONTEMPLATIVE
PRACTICE THAT CAN HELP YOU BECOME MORE AWARE OF YOUR INNER LIFE
AND FEEL MORE CONNECTED TO YOUR EXPERIENCE AND THE WORLD
AROUND YOU. STUDIES SHOW THAT WRITING DURING DIFFICULT TIMES MAY
HELP YOU FIND MEANING IN LIFE’S CHALLENGES AND HELP YOU BECOME
MORE RESILIENT IN THE FACE OF OBSTACLES.
• (LIN, OXFORD, AND BRANTMEIER, 2013)
THE PRACTICE OF RELIGION: BELIEF IN SUPERNATURAL
BEING AND POWER

PRACTICE OF RELIGION: BELIEF IN SUPERNATURAL BEING AND POWER

• THE VAST MAJORITY OF THE EARTH’S MORE THAN 7 BILLION PEOPLE PRACTICE SOME FORM
OF RELIGION. THE NUMBER OF RELIGIONS AND SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS THAT THE HUMAN
POPULATION PRACTICES IS ESTIMATED AT A LITTLE OVER FOUR THOUSAND. THE REASONS
AND THEORIES WHY HUMANS HAVE RELIGION ARE JUST AS MANY (IF NOT MORE).
• RELIGION IS DEFINED AS “THE BELIEF IN AND WORSHIP OF A SUPERHUMAN CONTROLLING
POWER, ESPECIALLY A PERSONAL GOD OR GODS” (© 2017 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS). IT IS
ALSO A “PARTICULAR SYSTEM OF FAITH AND WORSHIP.” (© 2003, 2016 UNIVERSITY OF
MINNESOTA HUMAN RIGHTS CENTER) MORE THAN ITS BELIEF AND PRACTICES, RELIGION IS
AN EXPERIENCE. RELIGION, HOWEVER, MAY BEST BE UNDERSTOOD AS A SYSTEMATIC
“ATTRIBUTION OF HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS OR BEHAVIOR TO A GOD, ANIMAL, OR OBJECT”
(READ: ANTHROPOMORPHISM). ONE REASON WHY HUMANS ATTRIBUTE HUMAN
CHARACTERISTICS TO OTHER “ENTITIES” IS THAT THE WORLD IS HUGE, AMBIGUOUS, AND WE
NEED TO INTERPRET IT THE BEST WAY WE CAN POSSIBLY UNDERSTAND.
THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

• A 1990 RESEARCH CONDUCTED BY STEVEN REISS, PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF

PSYCHOLOGY AT THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY POSITED A THEORY AS TO WHY PEOPLE
ARE ATTRACTED TO RELIGION. RELIGION, HE SAID, ATTRACTS SO MANY FOLLOWERS
BECAUSE IT SATISFIES ALL 16 BASIC DESIRES THAT HUMANS SHARE (THE 16 STRIVINGS
FOR GOD, 2016).
 ACCORDING TO REISS, THE 16 BASIC DESIRES
THAT HUMANS SHARE ARE:

• ACCEPTANCE • ORDER

• CURIOSITY • PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

• POWER
• EATING • ROMANCE
• FAMILY • SAVING
• HONOR • SOCIAL CONTACT

• IDEALISM • STATUS
•
• INDEPENDENCE
TRANQUILITY
• VENGEANCE
THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF RELIGION

THE INCREDIBLE AMOUNT OF VARIATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT RELIGIONS MAKES IT

CHALLENGING TO DECIDE UPON A CONCRETE DEFINITION OF RELIGION THAT APPLIES TO
ALL OF THEM. HOWEVER, SOCIOLOGISTS NOTED FOUR DIMENSIONS THAT SEEM TO BE
PRESENT, IN VARYING FORMS AND INTENSITIES, IN ALL TYPES OF RELIGION (DAWSON &
THIESSEN, 2014). THESE ARE:
• BELIEF
• RITUAL
• SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE
• UNIQUE SOCIAL FORMS OF COMMUNITY
• RELIGIOUS BELIEFS ARE A GENERALIZED SYSTEM OF IDEAS AND VALUES THAT SHAPE
HOW MEMBERS OF A RELIGIOUS GROUP COME TO UNDERSTAND THE WORLD AROUND
THEM. THESE BELIEFS ARE TAUGHT TO FOLLOWERS BY RELIGIOUS AUTHORITIES, SUCH
AS PRIESTS, IMAMS, OR SHAMEN, THROUGH FORMAL CREEDS AND DOCTRINES AS
WELL AS MORE INFORMAL LESSONS LEARNED THROUGH STORIES, SONGS, AND
MYTHS.
• RITUALS ARE THE REPEATED PHYSICAL GESTURES OR ACTIVITIES, SUCH AS PRAYERS
AND MANTRAS, USED TO REINFORCE RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS, ELICIT SPIRITUAL
FEELINGS, AND CONNECT WORSHIPPERS WITH A HIGHER POWER (LITTLE, 2016). A
COMMON TYPE OF RITUAL IS A RITE OF PASSAGE, WHICH MARKS A PERSON’S
TRANSITION FROM ONE STAGE OF LIFE TO ANOTHER. EXAMPLES OF RITES OF PASSAGE
INCLUDE BAPTISMS AND WEDDINGS. FROM A PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE, RITUALS
PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN PROVIDING PRACTITIONERS WITH ACCESS TO SPIRITUAL
“POWERS” OF VARIOUS SORTS. IN RELIEVING ANXIETIES, RELIGIOUS RITUALS PROVIDE
A BASIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STABILITY WHEN PEOPLE FACE UNCERTAINTY OR
CHANCE.
• A THIRD COMMON DIMENSION OF VARIOUS RELIGIONS IS THE PROMISE OF ACCESS TO
SOME FORM OF UNIQUE SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE OR FEELING OF IMMEDIATE
CONNECTION WITH A HIGHER POWER. FROM THIS POINT OF VIEW, RELIGION IS NOT SO
MUCH ABOUT THINKING A CERTAIN WAY (I.E., A FORMAL BELIEF SYSTEM) AS ABOUT
FEELING A CERTAIN WAY. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS IS OFTEN QUOTED TO HAVE SAID, 'TO
ONE WHO HAS FAITH, NO EXPLANATION IS NECESSARY. TO ONE WITHOUT FAITH, NO
EXPLANATION IS POSSIBLE' - SUMMING UP THE EXPERIENTIAL DIMENSION OF RELIGION.
• THE FOURTH COMMON DIMENSION OF RELIGION IS CREATING UNIQUE SOCIAL
FORMS OF COMMUNITY. EMILE DURKHEIM (1915/1964) EMPHASIZED THAT RELIGIOUS
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES “UNITE IN ONE SINGLE COMMUNITY CALLED A CHURCH, ALL
THOSE WHO ADHERE TO THEM.”
SOCIAL DIMENSIONS THAT RELIGIONS SHARE ACCORDING TO DAWSON AND THIESSEN
(2014):
• RELIGION GAINS CREDIBILITY WHEN AGREED AND SHARED BY A GROUP. IT IS EASIER TO
BELIEVE IN SOMETHING IF OTHERS AROUND YOU (WHO YOU RESPECT) BELIEVE IT AS
WELL.
• RELIGION PROVIDES AN AUTHORITY THAT DEALS SPECIFICALLY WITH SOCIAL OR
MORAL ISSUES SUCH AS DETERMINING THE BEST WAY TO LIVE LIFE. IT PROVIDES A
BASIS FOR ETHICS AND PROPER BEHAVIORS, WHICH ESTABLISH THE NORMATIVE BASIS
OF THE COMMUNITY.
• RELIGION ACTS AS A FORM OF SOCIAL CONTROL AND SUPPORTS THE DEVELOPMENT
OF SELF-CONTROL, WHICH ARE VITAL ELEMENTS OF A FUNCTIONAL SOCIETY.
• PLACES OF RELIGIOUS WORSHIP FUNCTION AS SOCIAL HUBS WITHIN COMMUNITIES,
PROVIDING A SOURCE OF ENTERTAINMENT, SOCIALIZATION, AND SUPPORT.
THE MAJOR RELIGIONS

• JUDAISM
• CHRISTIANITY
• ISLAM
• HINDUISM
• BUDDHISM
• JUDAISM ENCOMPASSES THE RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, AND CULTURE OF THE JEWISH
PEOPLE. IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY BELIEF IN ONE TRANSCENDENT GOD WHO HAS
REVEALED HIMSELF TO ABRAHAM, MOSES, AND THE HEBREW PROPHETS AND BY A
RELIGIOUS LIFE IN ACCORDANCE WITH SCRIPTURES AND RABBINIC TRADITIONS. THEIR
SACRED TEXT IS THE TORAH.
• CHRISTIANITY IS AN ABRAHAMIC
MONOTHEISTIC RELIGION BASED ON
THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF JESUS
CHRIST, WHO SERVES AS THE FOCAL
POINT OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH. FOR
CHRISTIANS, THE WORD OF GOD IS
WRITTEN IN THE BIBLE
ISLAM IS THE RELIGIOUS FAITH OF MUSLIMS WHO WORSHIP ALLAH
AS THE SOLE DEITY AND BELIEVES MUHAMMAD IS HIS PROPHET.
THE HOLY SCRIPTURES OF ISLAM IS THE KORAN.
HINDUISM, CONSIDERED THE WORLD'S OLDEST RELIGION, IS STILL COMMONLY PRACTICED. HINDUISM
COMBINES THE BELIEFS, PHILOSOPHY, AND CULTURAL PRACTICES OF INDIA. HINDU PRACTITIONERS ARE
GUIDED BY VEDIC SCRIPTURES AND BELIEVE IN RIGHTEOUSNESS, THE LAWS OF CAUSE AND EFFECT, AND
THE CYCLE OF BIRTH AND DEATH. CENTRAL TO THE FAITH IS A BELIEF IN REINCARNATION AND ONE
SUPREME GOD CALLED BRAHMAN WHO HAS MULTIPLE MANIFESTATIONS AS EITHER A GOD OR GODDESS.
GODS AND GODDESSES CAN BE SPIRITS, TREES, ANIMALS, AND EVEN PLANETS.
BUDDHISM REFERS TO THE TEACHINGS OF GUATAMA BUDDHA. BUDDHA, (ORIGINALLY A FOLLOWER
OF THE HINDU FAITH) EXPERIENCED ENLIGHTENMENT, OR BOHDI, WHILE SITTING UNDER A TREE. IT
WAS IN THIS MOMENT THAT BUDDHA WAS SAID TO BE AWAKENED TO THE TRUTH OF THE WORLD, OR
THE DHARMA. BUDDHA, AN ORDINARY MAN, TAUGHT HIS FOLLOWERS HOW TO FOLLOW THE PATH TO
ENLIGHTENMENT. THUS BUDDHISM DOES NOT BELIEVE IN A DIVINE REALM OR GOD AS A
SUPERNATURAL BEING, BUT INSTEAD FOLLOWS THE WISDOM OF THEIR FOUNDER
THE CONCEPT OF “DUNGAN”, SPIRIT, AND SOUL

• IN PRE-COLONIAL PHILIPPINES, OUR ANCESTORS LOOKED UP TO A “BABAYLAN”. DESCRIBED AS A

PRIESTESS OR SHAMAN, A BABAYLAN ACTED AS HEALER, SPIRITUAL LEADER, AND MEDIUM. THE
BABAYLAN PERFORM RITUALS THROUGH CHANTS OR PRAYERS FOR SPIRITUAL INTERVENTION TO DRIVE
SPIRITS THAT CAUSE ILLNESS OR MISFORTUNE.
• A BABAYLAN IS USUALLY A WOMAN, BUT THERE WERE SOME MEN WHO WERE BABAYLANS TOO. MALE
BABAYLANS HOWEVER WERE SAID TO HAVE FEMININE TRAITS.
• THE BABAYLANS EXPLORE THE WORLD OF ANIMISM. ANIMISM IS THE ATTRIBUTION OF A SOUL TO PLANTS,
INANIMATE OBJECTS, AND NATURAL PHENOMENA. OUR ANCESTORS BELIEVED THAT SOULS ARE QUASI-
PHYSICAL AND CAN EXIST OUTSIDE THE BODY (SUCH AS IN DREAMS AND IN VISIONS) AND THAT IT CAN
TRANSFER FROM ONE BODY TO ANOTHER. THEY ALSO BELIEVED THAT SOULS PERSIST AFTER DEATH
AND BECOME GHOSTS, IN THE SAME WAY THAT MODERN FILIPINOS BELIEVE IN “MULTO”.
• PRIOR TO BEING CONVERTED TO A RELIGION (ISLAM OR CATHOLICISM), OUR ANCESTORS ALREADY
BELIEVED IN SPIRIT BEINGS THAT DWELL IN THE ENVIRONMENT, OUR DECEASED ANCESTRAL SOULS, AND
FORCES IN NATURE (WIND, MOON, STARS). CENTRAL TO THE TRADITIONS OF OUR ANCESTORS WAS THE
BELIEF THAT ANIMATE AND INANIMATE CREATURES HAVE A “LIFE FORCE”.
HOW DO “DUNGAN” AND “GINHAWA” DIFFER?
• ALICIA P. MAGOS, AN ANTHROPOLOGIST AND A PROFESSOR EMERITA OF UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
VISAYAS MADE A PIONEERING STUDY ON THE PRIMEVAL VISAYAN CONCEPT OF “DUNGAN”. ACCORDING
TO MAGOS, “DUNGAN” WAS “A LIFE FORCE, AN ENERGY, AS WELL AS AN ETHEREAL ENTITY, A SPIRIT WITH
A WILL OF ITS OWN THAT RESIDES IN THE HUMAN BODY AND PROVIDES THE ESSENCE OF LIFE.” (MAGOS
1992, 47-50). UNDER THIS CONCEPT, EVERYONE HAS A “DUNGAN”. THIS IS SIMILAR TO THE WESTERN
CONCEPT OF “SOUL”. HOWEVER, UNLIKE THE SOUL, THE “DUNGAN” CAN TEMPORARILY LEAVE THE BODY
WHEN THE PERSON IS ASLEEP. ONCE “DUNGAN” RETURNS TO THE PERSON’S BODY, HE OR SHE
BECOMES FULLY CONSCIOUS AGAIN. HOWEVER, IF OTHER SPIRITS HARM THE “DUNGAN” WHILE IT IS
OUTSIDE THE BODY AND CANNOT RETURN, THE PERSON DIES.
• MEANWHILE, OUR PRE-COLONIAL ANCESTORS ALSO BELIEVED THAT ASIDE FROM A “DUNGAN”, A
VITAL FORCE ALSO OCCUPIES THE BODY. THIS VITAL FORCE WAS CALLED “GINHAWA” (TRANSLATION:
BREATH OF LIFE). “GINHAWA” WAS SAID TO BE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE HEART’S ABILITY TO BEAT. IT WAS
BELIEVED THAT IF “GINHAWA” LEFT THE BODY, THE PERSON ALSO DIES.
• GINHAWA AND DUNGAN BOTH EXIST IN EVERY PERSON. GINHAWA WAS THE BREATH OF LIFE,
WHILE DUNGAN WAS THE CONSCIOUS INTELLECTUAL AND EMOTIONAL ASPECTS.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SOUL AND
SPIRIT OF MAN?

• THE SOUL AND THE SPIRIT ARE THE TWO PRIMARY IMMATERIAL ASPECTS ASCRIBED TO HUMANITY. THERE
ARE DIFFERENT SHADES OF MEANING BETWEEN THE IDEA OF THE SOUL AND THE IDEA OF THE SPIRIT
FROM CULTURE TO CULTURE AND RELIGION TO RELIGION.
• HERE IS A BRIEF AND GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SOUL AND A SPIRIT:
• ETYMOLOGY
• OLD ENGLISH FOR “SOUL” WAS SAWOL THAT MEANT THE "SPIRITUAL AND EMOTIONAL PART OF A
PERSON, ANIMATE EXISTENCE." SPIRIT IS DIRECTLY FROM LATIN SPIRITUS "A BREATHING (RESPIRATION,
AND OF THE WIND), BREATH; BREATH OF A GOD," HENCE "INSPIRATION; BREATH OF LIFE".
• BIBLICAL BELIEFS
• SOUL “REFERS TO THE CONSCIOUS, THE MORAL, AND THINKING PART OF A PERSON. THE SOUL IS
IMMORTAL; AND WILL GO TO HELL, PURGATORY, OR HEAVEN AFTER THE PERSON DIES.
• SPIRIT “FIRST REFERS TO THE HOLY SPIRIT, THE THIRD PART OF THE TRINITY. IT IS THE FORCE OF GOD
THROUGH WHICH BLESSINGS ARE BESTOWED UPON HIS PEOPLE. AS ONE DEVELOPS IN THE FAITH, HE
OR SHE IS SAID TO BE GROWING SPIRITUALLY.
THE SOUL AND THE SPIRIT ARE THE TWO PRIMARY IMMATERIAL ASPECTS ASCRIBED TO HUMANITY. THERE
ARE DIFFERENT SHADES OF MEANING BETWEEN THE IDEA OF THE SOUL AND THE IDEA OF THE SPIRIT FROM
CULTURE TO CULTURE AND RELIGION TO RELIGION.
• HERE IS A BRIEF AND GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SOUL AND A SPIRIT:
• ETYMOLOGY
• OLD ENGLISH FOR “SOUL” WAS SAWOL THAT MEANT THE "SPIRITUAL AND EMOTIONAL PART OF A PERSON,
ANIMATE EXISTENCE." SPIRIT IS DIRECTLY FROM LATIN SPIRITUS "A BREATHING (RESPIRATION, AND OF
THE WIND), BREATH; BREATH OF A GOD," HENCE "INSPIRATION; BREATH OF LIFE".
• BIBLICAL BELIEFS
• SOUL “REFERS TO THE CONSCIOUS, THE MORAL, AND THINKING PART OF A PERSON. THE SOUL IS
IMMORTAL; AND WILL GO TO HELL, PURGATORY, OR HEAVEN AFTER THE PERSON DIES.
• SPIRIT “FIRST REFERS TO THE HOLY SPIRIT, THE THIRD PART OF THE TRINITY. IT IS THE FORCE OF GOD
THROUGH WHICH BLESSINGS ARE BESTOWED UPON HIS PEOPLE. AS ONE DEVELOPS IN THE FAITH, HE
OR SHE IS SAID TO BE GROWING SPIRITUALLY.
THE SOUL ACCORDING TO SOME ETHNOLINGUISTIC
GROUPS OF THE PHILIPPINES

• LINNAWA OR “SOUL OF THE DEAD” BY THE IFUGAO.

• KADUWA OF THE ISNEG (AN IGOROT TRIBE NATIVE TO APAYAO PROVINCE IN THE PHILIPPINES'
CORDILLERA ADMINISTRATIVE REGION). THE ISNEG BELIEVE THAT THE DEAD EXISTS IN A REALM CALLED
THE AGLALANAWAN. THE KADUWA (SOUL) IS BELIEVED TO CROSS A POND IN A FERRY PILOTED BY A
KUTAW (SPIRIT).
• THE KANKANAEY (ANOTHER MEMBER OF THE IGOROT PEOPLE) BELIEVE THAT THE HUMAN PERSON IS
COMPOSED OF THE PHYSICAL BODY AND THE AB-ABIIK (SOUL). WHEN SPIRITS SUMMON A PERSON’S AB-
ABIIK HE OR SHE BECOMES SICK. A RITUAL WILL BE PERFORMED TO APPEASE THE SPIRIT WHO
SUMMONED THE AB-ABIIK SO THAT IT WILL ALLOW THE AB-ABIIK TO RETURN TO ITS BODY AND THE
PERSON RECOVERS FROM THE ILLNESS.
• KALULUWA IS THE TAGALOG PEOPLE’S CONCEPT OF SOUL. HOWEVER, IT REFERS MORE TO THE SOUL OF
THE DECEASED. THE SOUL OF A LIVING PERSON IS CALLED A “KAKAMBAL”. THE KAKAMBAL LEAVES THE
PHYSICAL BODY AT NIGHT TO ROAM, AND ANY BAD ENCOUNTER CAUSES BANGUNGOT (NIGHTMARE).
• THE ILOKANO HAS A FOUR-SOUL SYSTEM.
• THE KARARUA, OR THE SOUL PROPER. IT IS THE EQUIVALENT OF A SOUL IN THE CHRISTIAN
CONCEPT.
• KARKARMA STANDS FOR NATURAL VIGOR, MIND AND REASON. IT CAN LEAVE THE PHYSICAL
BODY WHEN ONE IS FRIGHTENED. A KAKARMA CAN ALSO BE STOLEN. IF THIS SOUL FAILS TO
RETURN TO THE BODY, THE PERSON BECOMES INSANE. SACRIFICIAL CEREMONIES MAY BE
PERFORMED TO LURE BACK A LOST KARKARMA.
• ANIWAAS CAN LEAVE THE BODY DURING SLEEP AND VISITS PLACES FAMILIAR TO THE BODY. IF
ONE WAKES UP WHILE THE ANIWAAS IS VISITING THESE PLACES, THEY MAY LOSE THE
ANIWAAS AND BECOME INSANE.
• ARARIA IS THE LIBERATED SOUL OF THE DEAD. IT VISITS RELATIVES AND FRIENDS IN THE
PHYSICAL WORLD TO ASK FOR PRAYERS. IT CAN ALSO PERFORM A DUTY IT FAILED TO DO IN
LIFE. THE HOWLING OF DOGS MEANS ARARIA IS PRESENT. THIS SOUL CAN MAKE SOUNDS AND
MANIPULATE PHYSICAL OBJECTS USUALLY RELATING TO WHAT IT DID IN LIFE.
• THE IBANAG/YBANAG (WHO INHABITS THE PROVINCES OF CAGAYAN, ISABELA AND NUEVA VIZCAYA) HAS A
DISTINCTION BETWEEN BAGGI (BODY) AND IKARURUWA (SOUL). THE IBANAG BELIEVE THAT THE SOUL HAS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. THE SOUL MAY HAVE COLOR AND THE SOULS OF DEAD BABIES CAN REACH
ADULTHOOD IN THE SPIRIT REALM. THE ROLE OF THE SOUL IS TO GIVE DIRECTION AND WHOLENESS TO THE
MAN, BUT THE BODY CAN SURVIVE WITHOUT THE SOUL, AND EVEN WITHOUT THE BODY THE SOUL EXPERIENCES
MATERIAL WANTS AND NEEDS.
• THE HANUNOO MANGYAN (OF MINDORO) BELIEVES IN THE PLURALITY OF SOULS. FOR INSTANCE, THEY HAVE
KARADUWA TAWU/TAWO (HUMAN SOUL), KARADUWA MANOK (CHICKEN SOUL) KARADUWA BABOY (PIG SOUL)
KARADUWA KUTI (CAT SOUL) AND KARADUWA HIPON (SHRIMP SOUL). A SOUL CAN ALSO SEPARATE ITSELF FROM
THE PHYSICAL BODY. WHEN A PERSON SLEEPS, THE KARADUWA ROAMS THE WORLD. WHAT THE PERSON
DREAMS OF ARE ACTUALLY THE EXPERIENCES OF THE KARUDAWA WHILE ROAMING AROUND.
• THE TAGBANWA OF CENTRAL AND NORTHERN PALAWAN BELIEVES THAT PEOPLE HAVE ONE ‘TRUE SOUL’ OR
KIYARALUWA AND FIVE SECONDARY SOULS. THE KIYARALUWA IS GIVEN AT BIRTH BY THE GOD MAGINDUSA. THE
SECONDARY SOULS ARE LOCATED IN BOTH HANDS AND FEET, WHILE THERE IS ALSO ONE IN THE HEAD JUST
BELOW THE AIR WHORL (ALIMPUYO).
• THE ETHNIC TRIBES OF BUKIDNON BELIEVE IN THE GIMUKOD. ACCORDING TO THEIR CUSTOM, THERE ARE TWO
TYPES OF GIMUKOD: THE ONE IN THE RIGHT HAND AND THE ONE IN THE LEFT HAND. THE GIMUKOD IN THE RIGHT
HAND IS THE GOOD SOUL AND THE LEFT HAND IS THE BAD SOUL. THE RIGHT HAND SOUL IS ASSOCIATED WITH
LIFE, HEALTH, ACTIVITY, AND JOY. THE LEFT HAND SOUL IS THE CAUSE OF LETHARGY, PAIN AND ILLNESS.
RITUALS AND CEREMONIES

• A RITUAL IS A CEREMONY OR ACTION PERFORMED IN A CUSTOMARY WAY. RITUALS MAY

BE PRESCRIBED BY THE TRADITIONS OF A COMMUNITY, INCLUDING A RELIGIOUS
COMMUNITY. RITUALS INCLUDE NOT ONLY THE WORSHIP RITES AND SACRAMENTS OF
ORGANIZED RELIGIONS AND CULTS, BUT ALSO RITES OF PASSAGE, ATONEMENT AND
PURIFICATION RITES, OATHS OF ALLEGIANCE, DEDICATION CEREMONIES,
CORONATIONS, PRESIDENTIAL INAUGURATIONS, MARRIAGES, FUNERALS - PERHAPS
ALL KINDS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY.
• A CEREMONY IS A FORMAL ACT OR RITUAL (OFTEN SET BY CUSTOM OR
TRADITION) PERFORMED IN OBSERVATION OF AN EVENT OR ANNIVERSARY, I.E. A
JAPANESE TEA CEREMONY.
WHERE DOES RITUAL ORIGINATE?

THE GENERAL APPROACHES TO THEORIES ABOUT THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF RITUALS
ARE:
• ORIGIN APPROACH
• FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
• HISTORY OF RELIGIONS APPROACH
• THE ORIGIN APPROACH WAS THE EARLIEST FORM TO EXPLAIN RITUAL. THE BASIC PREMISE
OF THIS APPROACH IS THAT RITUAL BEHAVIOR WAS PART OF THE HUMAN EVOLUTION.
SCHOLARS BELIEVED THAT LOCATING THE OLDEST CULTURES AND CULTS COULD EXPLAIN
THE UNIVERSAL NATURE OF RITUALS; THAT IF THEY COULD DISCOVER THE ORIGIN, THEN
CONTEMPORARY HUMAN RITUALS CAN BE EXPLAINED.
• OTHER SCHOLARS TURNED AWAY FROM THE ORIGIN APPROACH CLAIMING SUCH APPROACH
CANNOT ADEQUATELY EXPLAIN HUMAN BEHAVIOR BECAUSE NO ONE CAN VERIFY THESE
IDEAS. INSTEAD, THESE SCHOLARS FOCUSED ON EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE GATHERED
THROUGH ACTUAL OBSERVATION. THE NATURE OF RITUALS WAS BELIEVED TO BE DEFINED
BY ITS FUNCTION IN SOCIETY. THE AIM OF THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH WAS TO EXPLAIN
RITUAL BEHAVIOR IN TERMS OF INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL NEEDS.
• THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS APPROACH HOLDS THE VIEW THAT RITUAL BEHAVIOR IS AN
EXPRESSION OF THE SACRED; THAT IT IS HOW THE MATERIAL HUMAN CONNECTS WITH THE
TRANSCENDENT REALM OR THE ULTIMATE REALITY. THE BASIC PROBLEM WITH THIS
APPROACH HOWEVER IS THAT SCHOLARS NEED TO AGREE FIRST THAT SUCH A
TRANSCENDENT REALM REALLY EXISTS BEFORE THE THEORIES CAN BE CONFIRMED.
(ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA)
CLASSIFICATION OF RITUALS

• IMITATIVE
• POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
• SACRIFICIAL
• LIFE CRISIS
• THE MEANING OF EVERY RITUAL IS BASED ON SOME BELIEF SYSTEM. THESE ARE
CALLED IMITATIVE RITUALS BECAUSE THESE ARE PATTERNED AFTER MYTHS AND THE
RITUAL REPEATS THE MYTHS OR ASPECTS OF THE MYTH. FOR EXAMPLE, FILIPINOS
MAKE NOISES AT THE STRIKE OF TWELVE EVERY NEW YEAR. THIS PRACTICE IS
ACTUALLY BASED ON A CHINESE MYTH. AS THE STORY GOES, THERE WAS ONCE A
MONSTER CALLED NIÁN. EVERY SPRING, AT MIDNIGHT ON NEW YEAR’S DAY, NIÁN
WOULD ARRIVE TO EAT VILLAGERS AND DESTROY HOMES AND FARMS. ONE NEW YEAR,
NIÁN CAME WHILE THE VILLAGERS WERE BURNING BAMBOO TO KEEP THEMSELVES
WARM. THE MONSTER, FRIGHTENED BY THE CRACKING NOISE OF THE BURNING
BAMBOO, FLED. THE VILLAGERS REALIZED THIS WAS HOW THEY CAN DEFEAT THE
MONSTER. AS TIME PASSED BY, FIRECRACKERS REPLACED BAMBOO BURNING.
• AVOIDANCE IS THE BEST DESCRIPTION FOR A NEGATIVE RITUAL. THE WORD TABOO HAS BEEN APPLIED
TO THOSE RITUALS THAT CONCERN SOMETHING SHOULD BE AVOIDED BECAUSE IT IS FORBIDDEN. THUS,
NEGATIVE RITUALS FOCUS ON RULES OF PROHIBITION, WHICH COVER AN ALMOST INFINITE VARIETY OF
RITES AND BEHAVIOR. THE ONE CHARACTERISTIC THEY ALL SHARE, HOWEVER, IS THAT IF THE PERSON
BREAKS THE RITUAL , IT WILL RESULT IN A DRAMATIC CHANGE THAT USUALLY BRING SOME MISFORTUNE.
ON THE OTHER HAND, POSITIVE RITUALS ARE MOSTLY CONCERNED WITH GIVING BLESSINGS TO AN
OBJECT OR TO AN INDIVIDUAL.
• SACRIFICIAL RITUALS ARE SEEN AS THE EARLIEST FORM OF RELIGION. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SACRIFICE
IN THE HISTORY OF RELIGION IS WELL DOCUMENTED. THE DISTINCT FEATURE OF THIS TYPE OF RITUAL IS
THE TOTAL DESTRUCTION OF THE SACRIFICE AS AN OFFERING TO A “HIGHER BEING”. THE SACRIFICE CAN
BE A HUMAN BEING, AN ANIMAL, FOOD CROPS, OR OBJECTS. THE DESTRUCTION COULD BE BY BURNING,
DISMEMBERING, CUTTING THE SACRIFICE INTO SMALL PIECES, EATING, OR BURYING.
• THE BASIC CHARACTERISTIC OF A LIFE CRISIS RITUAL IS THE TRANSITION OF ONE MODE OR STAGE OF
LIFE INTO ANOTHER. THIS RITUAL USUALLY DEFINES THE LIFE OF AN INDIVIDUAL. FOR EXAMPLE, IT IS A
FILIPINO TRADITION TO BURY THE PLACENTA RIGHT AFTER BIRTH AND IT IS THE FATHER WHO IS TASKED
TO DO THIS. MOREOVER, FOR THE SUCCEEDING CHILDREN, IT IS IMPORTANT TO BURY THE PLACENTA OF
THE SIBLINGS TOGETHER SO THAT THEY WILL ALWAYS LOVE AND CARE FOR EACH OTHER THE REST OF
THEIR LIVES.