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MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENT
• Measurement is the process of determining the extent , size or
dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison to a given standard.
It is the principal concern of a surveyor.
TWO KINDS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Direct Measurement - Comparison of measured quantity with a standard
measuring unit employed for measuring a quantity of that kind.
2. Indirect Measurement - Combination of many measurements.
THE METER
• It is the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red
light produced by burning the element krypton (with an atomic
weight of 86) at a specified energy level in the spectrum.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
General Rules:
• Rule 1 : Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.
Ex. 4 SF: 12.03 35.06 4009
• Rule 2 : For any value less than one, zeroes immediately to the right
of the decimal are not significant.
Ex. 3 SF: 0.00325 0.000826 0.0589
• Rule 3 : Zeroes placed at the end of the decimal numbers are
significant.
Ex. 5 SF: 739.80 190.00 38.000
ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS
Procedures:
1.Digits less than 5.
When the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the number is written without the
digit.
2. Digit is equal to 5.
When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number is used for
the preceding digit.
3. Digit is greater than 5.
When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the number is written with the
preceding digit increased by one.
NECESSITY FOR ACCURATE SURVEYS
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
• Accuracy – degree of perfection obtained in measurements. It
denotes how close a given measurement is to the true value of the
quantity measured.
• Precision (Apparent Accuracy) – the degree of refinement with which
a given quantity is measured. It is the closeness of one measurement
to another.
ERRORS AND MISTAKES
• Mistakes and errors are the ever-present differences between measured
quantity.
• Mistakes (or blunder) are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because
some aspect of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with
carelessness, inattention, poor judgment and improper execution.
• Error is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the
quantity caused by the imperfection of a person’s senses, by the
imperfection of the equipment, or by weather effects.
SOURCES OF ERROR
There are three sources of errors: people, instruments, and nature.
Accordingly, errors in measurement are generally said to be:
• PERSONAL ERRORS
• INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
• NATURAL ERRORS
TYPES OF ERRORS
• Systematic Error (Cumulative Error) – is one that, for constant
conditions, remains the same as to sign and magnitude.
• Accidental Error (Compensating/Random Error) – is one whose
magnitude and direction is just an accident and beyond the control of
the surveyor.
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
• Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably
occur over the range of possible occurrences.
I. MOST PROBABLE VALUE (MEAN)
•• For example,
A B
DISTANCE = 835.82±0.06 f.
Where: X – individual measurements
n – total number of observations made
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM#1
• A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a
distance between two points marked on the ground. The students
came up with the following six different values: 250.25, 250.15,
249.90, 251.04, 250.50 and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are
equally reliable and that the variations result from accidental errors,
determine the most probable value of the distance measured.
ANS: 250.51 meters
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM#2
• The angles about a point Q have the following observed values: 130°15’20”,
142°37’30”, and 87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
-30”
130°15’20”
87°07’40”
MOST PROBABLE VALUES:
Q
130°15’10”
142°37’20”142°37’30”
87°07’30”
II. RESIDUAL
• The residual, which is sometimes referred to as deviation, is defined
as the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its
most probable value or
where:
v – residual
x – measurement made
- most probable value of the quantity measured
III. STANDARD DEVIATION
• Also called as the mean square error, it provides a practical means of
indicating the reliability of a set of repeated measurements by
quantifying the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data
values.
• (single observation)
• (series of observation)
IV. PROBABLE ERROR
• Is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the mpv, defines
a range within which there is a 50% chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits.
For 50% probability, Cp = 0.6745. Hence,
(single observation)
(series of observation)
V. RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION
• It is the ratio of the error to the measured quantity and is used to
define the degree of refinement obtained. Usually expressed in
fraction having 1 as the numerator.
Example:
and MPV = 235.50.
VI. WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
• Because it is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability,
many surveying measurements have different degrees of reliability. In this
case, it is necessary to estimate the weight (degree of reliability) for each
measurement before they are combined and the most probable values are
determined.
Where:
w – weight being assigned
E – probable error
VII. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
1.
• Summation of Errors (Perimeter)
2. Product of Errors (Area)
where:
, – probable error of each measurement
, – measured quantities
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. The ff values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line:
1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40 and 1000.46.
Determine the ff:
A. MPV of the measured length (Ans. 1000.45 m)
B. PE of single measurement and mean (Ans. ±0.05 m and ±0.02m)
C. Final expression of the most probable length (MPL) (Ans. 1000.45±0.02 m)
D. Relative precision of the measurement (Ans. 1/20,000 m (single) and 1/50,000 (mean))
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
2. The three sides of a triangular shaped tract of land is given by the
following measurements and corresponding probable errors:
a = 162.54 ± 0.03m
b = 234.26 ± 0.05m
c = 195.70 ± 0.04m
Determine the error of the perimeter. (Ans. ± 0.07m)
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
3. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain
estimated probable error as follows:
W = 253.36 ± 0.06m
L = 624.15 ± 0.08m
Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the resulting
calculation.
(Ans. 158134.64 ± 42.58 sq.m)