“Fat -Replacers”

Need for Fat Replacer

• With the changing lifestyle, diseases like obesity,
diabetes and cardiovascular diseases have become
major health problems.

• More than 49% of women and 36% of men in urban

areas are obese, which is associated with problems
like hyperlipidemia, hypercholesolemia, diabetes,
hypertension, cancer and gallstones

• Thus to reduce the chances of obesity demand for

low fat or no fat food is increasing.
 Definition
• Fat Replacers: Substances, which chemically resemble fats,
protein or carbohydrates and posses certain desirable physical
or organoleptic properties of the fat (Lucca and Tepper, 1994).

Categorized into two groups,

1. Fat Substitutes (FS): a synthetic compound designed to
replace fat on a weight-by-weight basis, usually having a
similar chemical structure to fat but resistant to hydrolysis
against digestive enzymes.

2. Fat Mimetics (FM): The substance, which can imitate

physical or organoleptic properties. Also referred to as
Texturizing Agents. It requires a high water content to achieve
its functionality (Akoh 1998; Sachdeva 2000; Sahoo and Kumar 2003).
 Comparison between FS and FM.
Characteristics Fat Substitutes Fat Mimetics
Composition Fatty acid Carbohydrates, protein
derivatives based.
Miscibility Lipid phase Aqueous phase
Digestibility None or low Full or partial
Adverse effects Removal of oil None
soluble vitamins
Flavour impacts None Off-flavours
Applications Frying Cold and hot
Targeted fat 75-100% 50-75% (carbohydrates)
replacement 75-100% (protein)
Regulatory category Food additives GRAS

Source: Kilara, 1998.

 Ideal Fat Replacer
• Should impart creamy, oily and fat like mouthfeel.

• Contribute to appearance, texture, emulsion

stabilization, bulking and flavour.

• Completely safe and physiologically inert.

• Nutritionally equivalent i.e. in terms of type,

quantity and bioavailability of essential nutrients,
especially of fat soluble vitamins (Sachdeva, 2000).
 Functions of Fat in foods
• Source of EFAs, carriers for fat-soluble vitamins and source
of energy (Lindley 1993).

• Contribute to physical properties of foods.

• Contribute to sensory characteristics like:

i) Appearance (e.g. gloss, translucency, colour, surface
uniformly and crystallinity),
ii) Textual (e.g. viscosity, elasticity and hardness),
iii) Flavour (intensity of flavour, flavour release, flavour
profile and flavour development).
iv) Mouthfeel (e.g. meltability, creaminess, lubricity,
thickness and degree of mouth coating).
 Aspects Of Fat Replacement
Fat replacers mostly have hydrophilic characteristics
which tends to increase water content.

1) Mimicking the fat droplet: The "ball-bearing"

principle of replacing oil droplets is achieved by
synthetic fat substitutes which behave similarly to oil
droplets.
Example: Stellar, a crystalline fraction of starch form
particles of 3 to 5 µm is used to mimic fat.
LITA® are micro particulates of Zein protein, being
very dense, nondeformable, spheres, ranging from 0.1
to 8.0 µm in diameter (Jones, 1996; Kanawjia and Khurana
2006).
A three-ingredient system is necessary for a good fat mimetic,
i) a thickening agent for lubricity and flow control
ii) a soluble bulking agent for control and adsorption/
absorption of the food into task preceptors of the tongue and
iii) a micro particulate, generally insoluble agent that acts
like ball-bearing to create smoothness (Glicksman 1991).

2. Rheological matching:
Is necessary for processability and handling, physical,
chemical and microbiological stability, and sensory
characteristics.

In margarine, 80% and 25-35% in chocolate reduction of

fat can be achieved (Mather 1998; Jones, 1996).
3. Physical Stability and Fat Reduction:
Differences in physical characteristics is due to fat content,
composition of the aqueous phase, composition of the fat phase;
and the processing methods/conditions used.

Techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry

(DSC), solid fat content, spredability and texture measurements;
measured by penetrometry, are related to the hardness of the
spreads and also contribute to their physical stability (Jones,
1996).

Hydrocolloid stabilizers, either polysaccharide-based (e.g.

starch, maltodextrin) or protein-based (e.g. gelatin or sodium
caseinate) thicken and gel the aqueous phase droplets, giving rise
to rheological mimicing of fat in low-fat spreads. (Kadian et al.,
2000).
4. Sensory Implications of Fat Reduction
• Fat reduction affects sensory characteristic like
appearance, flavour, mouthfeel and texture.

• Addition of maltodextrin gives rise to a significant

perception of savoury, nutty in margarine.

• Addition of hydrocolloids causes change in flavour

release and its perception (Kadian et al., 2000;
Sachdeva, 2000).

• Fat reduction from 35 to 25% in milk chocolate gives

a more rapid perception of sweetness as well as a
higher sweetness intensity compared with a higher
solid fat index (70%) (Jones, 1996).
 5. Flavour Release and Fat Reduction
• The perception of flavour is the result of chemical stimulation of
receptors in both the oral and nasal cavities.

• Two major factors determine the rate of flavour release;

i) the partitioning of flavour compounds and
ii) resistance to mass transfer (i.e. diffusion and mastication)
affected by texture

• Fat delivers its own flavour volatiles and also acts as a carrier for
other lipophilic compounds.

• In starch the flavour compounds are entrapped in the helical

structure, and can be perceived in the mouth before swallowing .

• Partitioning behaviour, diffusion behaviour and surface

regeneration behaviour, determine the driving force in-mouth
flavour perception (Mather 1998; Kanawjia and Khurana 2006).
 Stages in the Flavour-Release Process and
Methods of Analysis.
Location of process Process Analytical method

Product Binding of flavour Headspace analysis

Mouth Liberation of Mouth analogue

flavours
Mouth/respiratory Flavour absorption None available
tract by mouth tissue
Respiratory Transport of flavours In-nose, Ms-breath
tract/nasal cavity to nasal cavity analysis
Nasal cavity Interaction with None available.
olfactory epithelium
Mind Flavour perception Sensory analysis

Source Jones, 1996.

 CLASSIFICATION OF FAT
REPLACERS
• On the bases of their origin and chemical
nature,
1. Carbohydrate -based
2. Protein - based
3. Fat - based and
4. Combination products of fat replacers
(Sroan & Kaur 2003; Sachdeva, 2000).
 CLASSIFICATION OF FAT
REPLACERS
• On basis of chemical composition and functionally,
1. Starch - derived
2. Fibre - derived
3. Protein - based
4. Gums, gels and thickeners
5. Emulsifies
6. Bulking agents
7. Low-calorie fats
8. Fat extenders
9. Synthetic fat substitutes
10. Combination systems (Jones 1996).
 Carbohydrate-based Fat Mimetics
• Carbohydrate based fat-mimetics incorporates water into a gel
type structure, resulting in lubrication and flow properties
similar to that of fat, which improves the rheological properties
viz., body, texture and viscosity of the product (Sharma et al.,
1998).

• Carbohydrate based fat-mimetics can be sub-divided into

i. Maltodextrins,
ii. Microcrystalline Cellulose,
iii. Methylcellulose Gums,
iv. Hydrocolloid Gums,
v. Polydextrose,
vi. Pectin,
vii. Inulin.
• Modified starches acts as texture modifier, bodying agents
and anti-staling agents in baked goods and are used for
substitution of fat (Rai et al., 2000).

• Maltodextrins form thermoreversible gels, and provide

functional benefits including water binding, low browning
tendency, humectancy, viscosity and bulking capabilities
useful for fat replacement (Dziezak 1986).

• Cellulose in the form of microcrystalline and sodium

carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), in combination with
hydrocolloids, such as gums and pectin's is used to replace
fat (Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis 2000; Kadian et al 2000).
• Polydextrose, contribute a slight smoothness in high
moisture formulations and fat sparing effect. Also used as
a bulking agent, humectant and texturizer (Akoh 1998; Jana
et al 1994).

• Gums form gel and increase viscosityand its functionality

depends mainly on interaction with water molecules. Gums
such as xanthan, guar, and locust bean are frequently used
in for low-fat products (Huyghebaert et al 1996).

• Inulin, an oligomer found in plants such as chicory and

Jerusalem artichoke. Gel formed at a 40-45%
concentration gives the fatty cream feel in products like
table-spreads, frozen desserts (Tomomatsu, 1994; Murphy 2001).
 Carbohydrate Based Fat Replacers
Fat Replacer Commercial Names
Maltodextrins Crystalean®, Lorelite® ,
MALTRIN® , Paselli® D-
LITE, Paselli® EXCEL,
Paselli® SA2, STAR-DRI® , N-
OIL® , Lycadex® , Beta-
TrimTM, Oatrim-1TM, Trim
ChoiceTM, AmuylumTM.
Modified AmaleanV® I & II, Farinex®
Food Starches VA15 & VA20, Insatant
StellarTM, N-Lite® , Opta
Grade® , PURE-GEL® , STA-
SLIMTM, PerfectamylTM AC.
Cellulose Avicle®, MetocelTM, Solka-
Floc®
Food Category
Baked goods, salad
dressings, spreads, fillings
and frostings, sauces,
frozen desserts, extruded
products, beverages, ice-
creams, confections and
dairy products.
Baked goods, salad
dressings, processed meat,
fillings and frostings,
sauces, frozen desserts and
dairy products
Salad dressings, sauces,
frozen desserts and dairy
products.
 Carbohydrate Based Fat Replacers
Fat Replacer Commercial Names Food Category
Gums KELOCOGEL® , Baked goods, salad dressings,
processed KELTROL® , desserts, beverages and
SlendidTM breakfast cereals.
Polydextrose Litesse ® , Sta-LiteTM. Salad dressings, puddings,
confections, chewing gums and
frozen dairy products.
Pectin Slendid 100® Baked goods, processed meat,
spreads, extruded products
and dairy products.
Inulin Raftiline® , Fruitafit® , Bakery products, beverages,
Fibruline® . confectionary, dairy products,
desserts, ice-cream, yoghurt,
soft cheese
(Source: Akoh, 1998; Sharma et al., 1998; Nelson, 1990; La-Barge, 1988; Kennedy, 1991, Megremis, 1991; CCC., 2001)
 MALTODEXTRINS
• Maltodextrins are nonsweet, nutritive saccharide
polymers consisting of D-glucose units linked
primarily by α -1, 4 bonds with a dextrose equivalent
(DE) of less than 20.

• Starches from any botanical source like starches

from corn, potato, wheat, rice, tapioca, sago palm,
barley, sorghum and other grains and roots can be
used (Roller, 1996; Pal and Prabha, 2005).

• Native starches are polymers of α-linked

anhydroglucopyranaose units and composed of
amylose and amylopectin in an approximate ratio of
25:75.

• Size varies from 0.5 to 175 µm in diameters and

shapes ranges from spheres, ellipsoids, polygons,
platelets and irregular tubules (Roller, 1996; Howling
1980).
 Production Processes of Maltodextrins
• Industrial manufacture of maltodextrins is based on
two different principal processes:

1.Single stage process: Gelatinization combined with

acid or enzyme treatment at high temperature (82 to
1050C).

2. Dual-stage process: Gelatinization at 1050C in

presence of acid or enzyme to a DE of <3. Followed
by jet-cooking at 1100C to 1800C and then
cooled to 82 to 1050C. Then treating with
bacterial α-amylase until the desired degree of
hydrolysis

The termination is done by either pH adjustment or

heat deactivation, followed by refining and spray-
drying (Roller, 1996).
• Maltodextrins are useful in fat replacement due to
their ability to form soft, spreadable, thermo
reversible gels with melt-in-the-mouth properties
(Richter et al. 1976).

• Maltodextrins show some undesirable physical

properties like the tendency of amylopectin to
retrograde slowly in low-fat food products by giving
rise to phenomena of set back in low-fat spoonable
salad dressings.

• Low-DE maltodextrins suffer from freeze-thaw

stability (Biliaderis 1992).
 Potato-Maltodextrin

• Maltodextrins based on potato are low-DE of ≤ 5,

cold soluble and have low viscosity in solution, but
at high concentration (>20%w/w) they are unstable
and gels, which are plastic, spreadable, shortening-
like texture (Richter et al. 1976).

• Potato starch retrogrades less readily, thereby

reducing the tendency to cause turbidity and an
undesirable texture.

• One part of maltodextrin and three parts of water can

replace four parts of fat or oil, which have reduced
the calories originally to as little as 11% (Jaap H 1996;
Howling, 1980).
 Application of Potato Maltodextrin
1. It replaces fat and some sugar to give calorie
reduced frozen desserts with the usage level of
1.5% (Hannigan, 1981; Adapa et al 2000).

2. In frozen desserts, maltodextrin added at a level of

9-13% which replaces butterfat and enables calorie
reduction by 45%.

3. In spreadable foods like table spreads, meat pates,

frostings and cheese-cake when fat is lowered the
continuous oil phase becomes smaller and water
phase larger (Harkema, 1996).

4. In liquid foods they add to a full-bodied texture and

mouth coating and used generally at concentrations
from 1 to 5% (Yackel and Cox 1992).
Nutritional & Toxicological Aspects of Potato Maltodextrin.

• Pre-prepared gels, consisting of one part

maltodextrin and three parts water, have only 1
kcal/gm, which is only 1/9 of the caloric value of fats
and oils.

• FDA has given maltodextrins a GRAS status for use

as a direct human food ingredient.

• Maltodextrins such as Avebe's Paselli SA2 are

labelled as either "Starch" or "Maltodextrin",
depending upon food legislation.
 Other Maltodextrins
• Corn-Maltodextrin: Product obtained by hydrolysis of corn-
starch. Maltrin M040 have a DE value of 5 and it gets easily solublised
in hot water and upon cooling forms thermoreversible gels.

• Tapioca-Maltodextrin: Produced by heating tapioca starch in the

presence of hydrochloric acid, which causes reduction in the viscosity of
cooked starch and gives rise to gel formation. These gels are
characterized by a bland flavour, smooth mouthfeel and a texture
similar to that of hydrogenated fat. e.g. N-oil, N-oil II.

• Oat Maltodextrin: Made by partial enzymatic hydrolysis of oat

starch. It has an excellent hypocholestrolemic or cholesterol reducing
property. Used in dairy products, confectionary, frozen desserts, cereal
baked goods and meat products. e.g. Oatrim-1TM, Oatrim-5TM.
 Maltodextrin-Based Fat Mimetics
Product Type Conn pH Temp. Applications in food
Name . stabilit Stabilit products
Used y y (0C)
Amalean I Corn 1-8% 3-7 all Cheese cake, pour/spoonable
Amalean II salad dressings, sauces, cream
Instant fillings dips, spreads, icings,
cheese spreads, desserts,
gravies.
N-oil, Tapioc 25% 3-8 all Confectionary, soup, frozen,
Instant N- a solid desserts, spoon/pourable salad
oil, s dressings, sour cream type
Instant N- dispe products, yoghurt, sauces,
oil II r- gravies, puddings.
sions
N-Lite B, Maize 25-30 3-8 all Bakery products
N-Lite L %
N-Lite LP Maize 2- 3-8 all Salad dressings, soups,
10% sauces
solid
s
 Product Type Conn. pH Temp. Applications in food
Name Used stabilit Stabilit products
y y (0C)
N–Lite D Maize 2-4 % 3-8 all Dairy products, yoghurt
N-lite CL
Stellar Corn 20-25% 4-6 25-200 Baked goods, frostings,
Instant- solids fillings, gravies, sauces, dairy
Stellar products, confectionary.

Maltrin Corn Gel at 3.5-7.5 300 Bakery and snack foods,

M040, 10-25% beverages, confectionary,
M100, dairy products, salad
M150, dressings, dips, margarine,
M180 spreads, frozen desserts,
meat.
Paselli A2 Potato 20% 3-7 25-212 Dressings, sauces, spreads
solids frozen desserts, toppings,
to form cakes, butter, cream
gel.

(Source: Akoh, 1998; Sharma et al., 1998; Nelson, 1990; La-Barge, 1988; Kennedy, 1991, Megremis, 1991;
CCC., 2001)
 2. MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE

• Microcrystalline cellulose (MC) was

developed in 1964, they are non-fibrous
forms of cellulose in which the plant cell
walls have been broken into fragments
ranging in size from 25 micron to less than 1
micron.
• It is composed of anhydrogluose units linked
together through a β (1-4) glycosidic bond. It
is hydrophilic, water insoluble, linear, high
molecular weight polymer consisting of
ordered areas.
• Used in low-fat/calorie foods to enhance
sensory properties, at levels from 0.1 to
10.0%.
Production Of Microcrystalline Cellulose Products:
Acid depolymerization of α-cellulose is carried out which removes the amorphous
chains and leaves crystalline of cellulose followed by agglomeration and drying to
produce aggregates of very porous particles of powdered microcrystalline
cellulose.

Cellulose

Chemical Mechanical
Derivation Derivation
Depolymerization

Soluble Ground Wet Mechanical

Cellulose cellulose
Drying
Disintegration

Powdered
CMC Hydrocolloid
Avicel

Drying Processing

Colloidal
Drying
Avicel

Novagel
 i. Colloidal Grade MC
• Colloidal grade MC when dispersed in water form a
three-dimensional network which with particles less
than 0.2 microns.

• The dispersion is highly thixotropic, temperature

stable and adds body, while imparting a clean
mouthfeel (Lindley MG 1993).

• Optimal functionality depends on factors like

adequate shear, order of addition, hard
water/electrolytes presence and pH of the food
temperature have little or no effect.

• Used in salad dressings, processed cheese, frozen

deserts (Kanawjia and Khurana, 2006, Mather, 1998).
 ii. Powdered Grade MC
• Developed in 1957 and used In low-calorie food
products. They are crystalline in nature, insoluble and
chemically inert. Available as FD and LM grade.

• Functional property is formation of three-dimensional

network.

• Used as a high quality inert fibre source, non-caloric

bulking agent, anticaking agent.

• LM grade used upto 15% in confectionary and biscuit

fillings (Kanawjia and Khurana, 2006, Mather, 1998).

• FD grade used in reduced-fat aqueous based foods

 3. Methylcellulose Gums

• Any water-soluble polysaccharide, extractable from

land or marine plants or from microorganisms and
possess the ability to contribute viscosity or gelling
ability to their dispersions.

• Hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose (HMPC) and

Methycellulose (MC) imitate the mouthfeel imparted by
fats via film formation and control viscosity.

• They help entrain air in foodstuffs to improve structure,

stabilize air or carbondioxide bubbles to reduce volume
loss, and enhance moisture retention in products like
sauces and dressings, frozen and baked goods (Whistler
and Daniel, 1996; Mather 1998).
Production Process for MC and HPMC
• Cellulose is the raw material which is made soluble
by the addition of sodium hydroxide.

• This step swells the cellulose to facilitate

substitution, in regions of high crystallinity.

• Alkali cellulose is then allowed to react with Methyl

Chloride to form MC and Propylene oxide too is
added for the production of HPMC.

• The resulting product is a moist porous cake, which

is dried using hot air, followed by grinding and
packaging (Mariscal and Bell 1996, Akoh1998).
• MC and HPMC are described in terms of degree of
substitution (DS) and molar substitutions (MS).

• DS is the amount of substituent groups on the

anhydroglucose units of cellulose and MS is the
average number of molecular of substituent which
have been substituted per anhydroglucose unit.

• DS and MS affect physico-chemical properties like

water retention, sensitivity to electrolytes,
dissolution temperatures, gelation characteristics.

• Methoxy substitution for hydroxypropoxyl groups in

MC is from 25-33% which corresponds to DS range
of 1.49 to 2.00, while in HPMC it is 19-30 % and DS is
in range from 3.0 to 12.0% (Mariscal and Bell 1996; Sachdeva,
2000).
 Physical and Functional Properties of MC and
HPMC
• Solutions show pseudoplastic, nonthixotropic behaviour.

• Gels when heated whilst other gums like gelatin or alginates

melt; because the water of hydration of the polymer chains
in solution is gradually lost as the temperature increases.
• Gelation process is reversible on cooling and affected by the
presence of additives like salt, sugar, sorbitol etc.

• They are surface active polymers and also act as stabilizers.

• In fat reduction, film formation, and mouthfeel property be
achieved in fried foods

• Stable in pH range of 3 to 11 and resistant to high

temperature like 120 to 1900C.
 Application of MC and HPMC in Foods
• In fried foods: reduction in fat uptake, lower caloric value,
improved cooking economy, more moisture retention, juicier
product and high yield. They also improve adhesion, gloss,
texture and viscosity.

• In cake & doughnuts, oil reduction of 26 to 28% is achieved.

• Freeze - thaw stability of frozen foods is improved.

• In liquid food they act as stabilizers, provide pourability, texture

and viscosity to prepare low-calorie sauces and dressings.

• In baked foods: enhancement of air entrainment, promoting

uniform and fine cell size in crumb structure. Thermal gelation
property avoids moisture loss and improves it shelflife.
Increased tolerance to overmixing, longer holding times and
improved product yield.

• In frozen dairy products, their film forming property, thickening

capability, and lubricity mimics the feel of fat (Kanawjia and
Khurana, 2000; Akoh, 1998; Sachdeva, 2000).
Nutritional & Toxicological Aspects of MC & HPMC
• MC and HPMC products are regarded as being soluble
dietary fibres which pass unchanged into colon where
they are fermented to a variable extent.

• They are considered physiologically inert as they are

highly resistant to enzymic degradation.

• MC are labelled either as “Methylcellulose” or E-461

and HPMC as “Hydroxpropyl Methylcellulose” or E-
464 and are GRAS and used as food additives (Mariscal
and Bell 1996).
 Microcrystalline Cellulose & Methylcellulose Gums Fat
Mimetics
Product Source Conn. pH Temp. Application in food
Name Used stability stability products
(0C)
Avicel Cellulos 2-5.0% >3.5 All Salad dressings, dips,
RC/CL. e gel Spreads, bakery, products,
dairy products, meat
products.
Methocel MC 0.5-3% 3-11 All Fried foods, Salad
Hydroxyl- HPMC dressings,
propyl Sauces, bakery products,
Methyl- Cheesecake, whipped
cellulose toppings
Oatrim Oat Low >3 Retort Dairy products,
flour. conn Confectionary, Cereal baked
goods, meat products.
Oat-fibre Oat fibre 3-6% All All Processed meats, ice-
White(780 cream, butter Coated
) products and deep fried
Tan(770) foods, chocolate
Extra-
fine(782)
 Microcrystalline Cellulose & Methylcellulose Gums Fat
Mimetics
Product Source Conn. pH Temp. Application in food products
Name Used stability stability

P-Fiber Pea fiber 3-17% - All Meat products, Mayonnaise,

150 Dressings, marzipan
Sofalite- Pea fiber 2-10% - All F179-dairy products,
F179 Desserts, meat products
Sofalite- M176- sausages
M176
Swelite Fibres 1-50% - All Hamburger, poultry products,
from sausages, vegetable
inner part products, soft cheese,
of pea ketchup, extruded foods
kernel
Tabulose Powdered 0.5-20% - All Mayonnaise, salad
microcrys dressings, sauces, diteray
-talline products, bakery products,
cellulose imitation cheese products.
 4. HYDROCOLLOID GUMS
• Gums are referred to as hydrophilic colloids or
hydrocolloids which are long chain, high-molecular
weight polymers that dissolve or disperse in water,
and are considered non nutritive. Used as bulking
agents and emulsifiers (Glicksman, 1991).
• Thickening property: Molecular weight, flexibility of
polymer chains, and the amount of bound water
associated with polymer determine their viscosifying
properties.
• Gelling property: A gel network is a permanently
cross-linked polymer solution, to give a three-
dimensional network structure in which solvent is
entrapped.
• Temperature, pH, solvent quality, ionic strength,
presence of specific ions affects the
ordered/disordered equilibrium in either one direction
or the other (Kaidan et al., 2000; Clegg 1996).
 Classification of Hydrocolloids
Type Examples.

Plant exudates Gum Arabic, Ghatti, Karaya, Tragacanth

Seaweed extract Agar, alginates, Carrageenan, Furcelloran.

Plant Extracts Pectin, hemicelluloses, b-glucans, pentosans
Yeast extracts b-glucans
Animal extracts Gelatin, Chitin.

Seed flours. Guar, Locust bean, tara, tamarind, flax

Biosynthetic Xanthan, gellan, curdulan, pullulan, dextran, scleroglucan.

Semi-synthetic Carboxymethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydropropylmethyl
cellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose,
hydroxypropyl starch , propylene glycol alginate, low methoxy
pectin, hydroxypropyl guar.

Synthetic Polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyethylene oxide, acrylic acid polymers,

methyl vinyl ether/ maelic anhydride, polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene
glycol polymers.
i. Galactomannans

• Galactomannans is the family which shows gum-like

properties and comprises mainly guar gum, locust
bean gum, and tara gum.

• Galactomannans are polysaccharides whose

monomeric building blocks are composed of
galactose and mannose.

• Guar gum and locust bean gum differ from each

other in their ratio of mannose to galactose (M:G
ratio) or 1.5 to 2 and ~3.5 respectively.
a. Locust Bean Gum
• Derived from Carob seed, Ceratonia Siliqua.

• It consists of D-Mannopyronosyl backbone attached D-

galactopyranosyl units, the two components existing in a
ratio of 4:1.

• Limited solubility in cold water, but on heating to 800C for

10 min it hydrates fully, resulting in a highly viscous
pseudoplastic solution.

• Factors like prolonged heating, high rate of shear and the

time can irreversibly degrade the locust bean gum solutions.

• They are fairly stable at pH range from 3.5 to 11.0 (Whistler

RL and Daniel, 1985; Clegg, 1996; Pederson, 1980)
b. Guar Gum
• Guar gum, or guran is the endosperm of the seed Cyampsis
tetragonolobus.

• It is a galactomannan containing a backbone of (1→4)-β-D-

mannopyranosyl, units with every second unit bearing a
(1→6)-α-D-galactopyranosyl unit.

• M:G ratio is lower in guar gum (1.5 to 2.5).

• Functional properties are thickening & water binding

capacity.

• Low heat is required for solubilization (i.e. at 25 to 400oC).

• Stable at pH 3.5 to pH 9.0 (Clegg, 1996; Pederson, 1980).

• Utilized at concentrations below 1% for fat replacement.

Applications In Low-fat Foods:
• Glicksman, suggested a three ingredient system for a good
fat mimetic.
i) a thickening agent for lubricity and flow control,
ii)a soluble bulking agent for control of
absorption/adsorption of the food on to the taste receptors
of the tongue and
iii) a microparticulate to give smoothness of the fat.

• As a stabilizer in low-fat ice-creams, dressings, sauces and

mayonnaises.

• In soft cheese type products to prevent syneresis.

• In low-fat bakery products to give softness and moistness.

• Used at 0.1 to 0.4% levels.

 Hydrocolloid Gum Based Fat Mimetics
(Source: Akoh, 1998; Sharma et al., 1998; Nelson, 1990; La-Barge, 1988; Kennedy, 1991, CCC., 2001)
Product Source Conn. pH Temp. Energy Application in food products
Name Used stability stability output
(0C). (kcal/gm)

Aquagel, Carrageena <1% 3-11 32- <1 Bakery, beverages, sauces,

Aquavis, n retort confectionary, Dairy
Milkgel products, meat products,
salad dressings
Milk Vis

Liangels Carrageena 1% 2- 7 0-290 <1 Bakery, beverages, sauces,

Spraygum n confectionary, dairy
Gelamix Acacia gum products, meat products,
Emulgum Xanthan salad dressings
gum
Keltrol Xanthan 0.1- 1-13 0-290 <1 Salad dressings, sauces,
range gum 0.5% frozen dessert, bakery
products, margarine,
spreads.
Procol Guar gum 1% 3.5-9.0 - - Salad dressings, Sauces,
range soups, Condiments, Bakery
products, frozen desserts
 POLYDEXTROSE
• Polydextrose is a unique material that was invented by Dr.
Hans Rennhard in the mid 1970s.

• It is a randomly-bonded polymer of glucose, sorbitol and

citric or phosphoric acid.

• Available in liquid or powdered and acidic or neutralized

forms.

• It is a low-calorie bulking agent which can replace all or

part of the sugars and some of the fats in foods.

• Used as a humectants, texturizer, thickeners and stabilizer.

• It is water-soluble, low calorie (1 Kcal/g) and non-

carcinogenic (Martin 1987, Akoh 1998 and Jana et al. 1994).
Production Process & Chemical Composition.
• Polydextrose is prepared by a vacuum melt process
involving polycondensation of glucose in presence
of small amounts of sorbitol and citric acid in the
ratio of 89:10:1 respectively (Mitchell, 1996).

• Sorbitol acts as a plasticizer and citric acid as a

catalyst.
• Polydextrose has an average degree of
polymerization of 8 glucose units and a molecular
weight below 5,000.
• The random bonds in the polymer creates a
structural compactness and complexity that
prevents mammalian digestive enzymes from readily
hydrolyzing the molecule. (Goff, 1984; Murphy, 2001).
 Applications Of Polydextrose
• Litesse II is used in light foods that are more flavour
sensitive and where a higher level of sugar and fat
replacement is required e.g. confectionery, chocolate,
bakery fillings and toppings, jams/jellies, syrups and
spreads.

• In short-crust pastry, fat-content can be reduced by upto

50%, with increased crispness, reduced pastry shrinkage,
improved machinability.

• In chilled desserts, 50% calorie reduction is achieved in

layered desserts and yogurts by using polydextrose as a
low-calorie baking agent.

• A 33% calorie and fat reduction is possible in products

such as peanut spread. (Mitchell 1996).
 Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects of
Polydextrose
• Polydextrose can neither be digested nor fermented and is
thus excreted in faeces.

• Due its slow rate of absorption from the small intestine, a

laxative effect may occur with high doses.

• The FDA regulation has recognized polydextrose as

carbohydrate.

• If more than 15 gm of polydextrose is contained per serving

the food must be labelled with that information and the
statement that "Sensitive individuals may experience a
laxative effect from excessive consumption of this product”.
(Anonymous 1986).
 Polydextrose Based Fat Replacers.
Product Source/ Conn pH Temp. Application in food
Name modification Used stability stability products
(0C)
Polydextrose Polymer of 5% 5-6 >130 Pastry, Confectionary
Glucose with Products, Dressings, Spreads,
sorbitolAnd Bakery fillings, Toppings,
citric acid chilled desserts.
(89:10:1)
Litesse Improved 5-10 5-6 >130 Pastry, Confectionary
Polydextrose % Products, Dressings, Spreads,
Bakery fillings, Toppings,
chilled desserts.
Litesse-II Super- 10 % 5-6 >130 Pastry, Confectionary
improved Products, Dressings, Spreads,
Polydextrose Bakery fillings, Toppings,
chilled desserts.
Sta –Lite Polydextrose - - - Confectionary and bakery
(Fast
dissolving)
(Source: Akoh, 1998; Sharma et al., 1998; Nelson, 1990; La-Barge, 1988; Kennedy, 1991, CCC., 2001)
6. PECTIN
• A purified carbohydrate product obtained by aqueous
extraction under mildly acidic conditions.

• Used as a gelling agent for jams and jellies. Other

applications are confectionary products, dairy products,
fruit preparations, bakery fillings (Glicksman, 1991).

• Production Process: Citrus peel and apple pomace, are

blanched to inactivate pectin esterase, followed by drying.

• The production process of SLENDID®, includes

extraction, purification of the liquid extraction, isolation of
the pectin followed by a controlled deesterification with the
help of either acid or base.

• Yield from dried citrus peel is 20 to 30% and from apple

pomace is 10 to 15% (Pszezola, 1991).
Chemical Composition
• Pectin’s with a DE below 50% are designated as LM-
pectin's, whereas pectin’s with DE above 50% are HM-
pectin’s.

• Pectin consists mainly of the partial methyl esters of

polygalacturonic acid and their Sodium, Potassium,
Calcium and Ammonium salts.

• D-galacturonic acid units are diaxialty linked by α-(1,4)-

glucosidic bonds.

• For gelation LM-pectins requires a wide pH range from 2.8

to 7.0 and HM-pectins require acidic conditions of pH 2.0 to
3.5 (Tiwari, 2005; Sachdeva, 2000; Pederson, 1980)
Application and Nutritional Aspect Of Pectin
• SLENDED® 110, is used to reduce the fat content in a
frankfurter from 25 to 35% to 3 to 5%, which is used as a
wet preparation of 2% to at a level of 0.9%.

• Some of the pectins are partially degraded by intestinal

bacteria in the colon to short chain fatty acids, methane,
carbon dioxide, hydro and water with a net energy value of
9 Kcal/gm.

• The fat replacer is "pectin" or "fruit pectin" and in the

U.S is affirmed GRAS

• The E.U has adopted pectin as a food additive under the

designation of E440.
7. Inulin
• An oligomer found in plants such as chicory and Jerusalem
artichoke and has a high degree of polymerisation of 2-60.

• Production process: Extraction of inulin from chicory roots

by diffusion in hot water, followed by refining and spray
drying (Murphy 2001).

• At a concentration of 40-45% an inulin gel or crème is

formed which is firm but with a fatty creamy feel.

• Inulin is stable in acidic conditions or at high temperatures

owing to lack of available water, this property is used in
‘reduced fat’ mayonnaise and salad dressings.

• It can be used in fat-free products to give a smooth creamy

texture and taste (Tomomatsu, 1994; Murphy 2001).
 Applications of Inulin
• Table spreads: both fat and water form a continuum with
inulin, so both can be replaced and also stabilise the
emulsion while providing a short spreadable texture.

• Breads: inulin crème can be used to increase water

addition in dough's as well as moisture retention.

• Icecream: as an inhibitor of water crystal growth.

• Dairy-based mousses: incorporation of 1-5% inulin

enables the product to retain its structure for a longer time
and gives a rich fat-like mouthfeel (Singh & Singh 2005).

• Inulin allows to replace fat containing 37.6 kJ/g with an

inulin/water combination which has an energy value of
2.09kJ/g or less (Schaller-Povolny & Smith 1999).
 PROTEIN BASED
• MADE FROM MICRO PARTICULATED
PROTEIN LIKE EGG WHITE, MILK OR SOYA
BEAN

• 1-4 CALORIES PER GRAM

• STABLE IN COOKING AND BAKING

• NOT SUITABLE FOR FRYING

EXAMPLES OF PBFR
• SIMPLESSE- MADE FROM WPC
• K-BLAZER BASED ON EGG WHITE
AND MILK PROTEINS
• USES SIMILAR TO CBFR
 PROTEIN BASED PRODUCTS

PRODUCT COMPOSITION COMPANY

SIMPLESSE MILK PROTEIN, EGG NUTRA SWEET

WHITE

TRAIL DRIED EGG WHITE, KRAFT

BLAZER WP,XANTHAN GUM GENERAL
FOODS
LITA ZEIN OPTA FOOD
INGREDIENTS
 FAT BASED
• FAT BUT NOT EASY TO DIGEST
• PROPERTIES SIMILAR TO FAT
• CONTRIBUTES ABOUT 5 CALORIES /g
• USED IN CANDIES, CHOCOLATE COATINGS, DAIRY
PRODUCTS, CONFECTIONS, DESSERTS, CRACKERS,
COCOA BUTTER
• SUITABLE FOR FRYING
 EXAMPLES OF FBRS
• SALATRIN- CONTAINS SHORT AND MEDIUM
CHAIN FATTY ACID
• NOT EASILY ABSORBED
• SYNTHETIC REPLACER BASED ON F.A.
• MADE BY ADDING 6-8 F.A. MOLECULES TO
SUCROSE
• F.A. BLOCKS ACCESS TO SUGAR HENCE
RESISTANT TO ENZYMATIC BREAK DOWN
• CAN NOT BE DIGESTED

CONTD…..
EXAMPLES OF FBRS

• OLEAN-OLESTRA
• CAN BE USED IN FRYING, SAVOURY
SNACKS
• BEHAVES MUCH LIKE MINERAL OIL
• ITS USE MUST BE MENTIONED ON
LABEL
Conclusion:
•Viable root to replace fat in
foods is to devise appropriate
processing changes for each of
the products.
•No single ingredient is
commercially is available to
replace fat in all foods
 The main hurdles that industry should overcome are;
1. The development of new and safe ingredients that can be
combined successfully to provide the sensory and functional
properties,

2. The technological problems associated with the production of

low-fat products of accepted organoleptic and quality
characteristics.,
3. The use of the conventional machinery for the production of
the newly developed foods,

4. The long-term acceptability and consumers adaptation to the

quality of low fat products,

5. The cost-effective commercial production of dietetic foods.