NUMERICAL

PROTECTIVE RELAYS

© ERLPhase Power Technologies Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 1

Developments in Relay Technology

 Till 1980  Electromagnetic Relays

 1980 - 1986  Static Relays

 1986 - 1990  Microprocessor based relays

 1990  Numerical relays

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PROTECTIVE RELAY TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION

PROTECTIVE RELAY

Electromechanical Static

Analog Electronic
Attractive force

Digital Electronic
Rotational torque Hardware

Processor based

Ps & DSPs

Software

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 ELECTROMECHANICAL:

They work on the principle of a mechanical force causing operation of a relay

contact in response to stimulus. The mechanical force is generated through
current flow in one or more windings on a magnetic core or cores, hence the
term electromechanical relay. The principle advantage of such relays is that
they provide galvanic isolation between the inputs and outputs in a simple,
cheap and reliable form-therefore for simple on/off switching functions where
the output contacts carry no substantial currents, they are still used.

Electromechanical relays can be classified into several different types as

follows:
Attracted armature
Moving coil
Induction
Thermal
Motor operated
Mechanical
However, only attracted armature types have significant application at this
time, all other types having been superseded by more modern equivalents
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Solid State Relays

 Input quantities adjusted to levels suitable for electronic

circuits.

 Current signals converted to voltage signals.

 Decision taken based on rectified DC quantities.

 These are semiconductor devices composed of electronic

components like resistors, diodes , transistors etc.

 No moving parts

 Lighter and smaller than electromagnetic relays

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Solid State Relays
 Perform the same function as electromagnetic relays except
that they need less voltage to operate

 Switching can be performed in very short times.

 Affected by transients, which, if present in the inputs, may

cause them to malfunction.

 Reliable but electronic components may drift due to high

ambient temperature and aging.

 Energize trip circuits using electronic devices such as silicon

control rectifiers. Hence no arcing during switching.

 Switches in solid state relays have leakage currents

irrespective of the fact whether the switches are open or 6
closed
 Numerical Relays

 Filtered signals converted to Square waves

 Evaluation is done based on Phase Angle Comparison
 Either discrete logics or Microprocessors are used
 Power system protection has changed a lot since the
evolution of microprocessors
 Very large integration made it possible to put together
numerous components in a single chip
 Today, digital techniques are implemented to protect all
components of power system
 Basically, digital techniques use the same logic that is used
in electromechanical and solid state relays

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Numerical Relays

 Power system protection has changed a lot since the

evolution of microprocessors
 Very large integration made it possible to put together
numerous components in a single chip
 Today, digital techniques are implemented to protect all
components of power system
 Basically, digital techniques use the same logic that is used
in electromechanical and solid state relays

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ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL RELAYS

PARAMETER NUMERIC CONVENTIONAL

ACCURACY 1% 5% / 7.5%
BURDEN < 0.5 VA > 5 VA
SETTING RANGES WIDE LIMITED
MULTI FUNCTIONALITY YES NO
SIZE SMALL LARGE
FIELD PROGRAMMABILITY YES NO
PARAMETER DISPLAY YES NO
SYSTEM FLEXILBILITY YES NO
CO-ORDINATION TOOLS MANY TWO
COMMUNICATION YES NO
REMOTE CONTROL YES NO
SPECIAL ALGORITHMS MANY LIMITED
SPECIAL PROTECTIONS YES NO
SELF DIAGNOSTICS YES NO
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PROTECTION ALGORITHM

 MEASUREMENMT METHOD

 TRIP TIME CALCULATION

 GOOD FILTERING CHARACTERISTIC

(HARMONICS, NOISE, DC SHIFT)

 FAST TRIP DECISION

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FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS OF A NUMERIC RELAY

ANALOG D RAM
INPUT S
SU-SYSTEM P ROM
MICRO EPROM
PROCESSOR FLASH
DIGITAL
INPUT
SUB-SYSTEM DIGITAL
OUTPUT
SUB-SYSTEM

POWER SUPPLY COMMUNICATION

INTERFACE
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ANALOG INPUT SUB SYSTEM

SURGE ANALOG
CT SUPPRESSION FILTER

A/D MICRO
MUX
CONVERTER PROCESSOR

SURGE ANALOG
PT SUPPRESSION FILTER

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DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS

 Designed for repetitive measurements

 Digital filtering

 Highly suitable where microprocessor has to do

measurements, logic, communication & other functions

 Designed to handle one instructions per clock cycle

(microprocessors need many clocks per instruction)

 Improves speed of operation

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 NUMERICAL RELAYS

Numerical relays operate on sampled signals and adopt digital

computations. Sampling is the process of converting analog
input signals, such as current and voltage, into digital input
signals. These analog input signals, in case of
electromechanical and static relays, are directly fed into the
electromagnetic winding or electronic circuits. In order to
protect the relay from large transients of the input signals a
surge filter is used.

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 ANTI-ALIASING FILTER

An anti-aliasing filter is used to avoid possible errors in

reconstructing input signal carried out after the A/D Sample /
Hold section. Any signal having harmonic components of order
N±1, 2N ±1, ….., x N ±1, where N is the number of samples
per cycle, can exhibit aliasing. Perfectly, an anti-aliasing filter
has to cut off all signal components above the Nyquist rate of
N/2. In practical, however, such a filter can not cut off all out of
band frequencies, so the anti-aliasing filter cut off frequency is
set at about N/3.

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 A/D CONVERTS

The A/D converts the sample values that represent the analog
input signals into the digital input signals. However, the
conversion is not instantaneous, and for this reason, the A/D
system typically includes a sample-and-hold circuit. The
sample-and-hold circuit provides ideal sampling and holds the
sample values for quantization by the A/D converter.

The microprocessor containing the relay algorithm is the

controller of the numerical relay. The microprocessor most
often performs all control, computation, self-test and
communication function. The algorithm functions as a digital
filter to extract the fundamental component of the input signal,
based on which the relay operation is carried out.

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 Relay algorithm

The algorithm is designed to remove as much as possible all of

unwanted components from the input signals such as harmonic,
DC, etc. Two common algorithms, the Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT) and the Root Mean Square (RMS) algorithm are generally
used.

Discrete Fourier Transform

The DFT can extract any frequency from the signal. Since the
DFT is capable of rejecting everything except the frequency being
measured, it has a good response to transient overshoot.

Root Mean Square (RMS)

The Root Mean Square is a method of calculating the magnitude

of a periodically varying quantity. It can be calculated for a
series of discrete values or for a continuously varying function.
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 TYPES OF MEMORY NUMERIC RELAYS

RAM Read / Write Memory. Used for temporary storage

of variables - like sampled data / oscillographic data

EEPROM / Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

NOVRAM Non Volatile RAM
Used for storage of data that remains when power off
(CT/PT/machine ratings, trip settings etc.)

ROM Read Only Memory. Masked version used for high volume
production units. Used for storage of specific programmes.

EPROM Electrically Programmable ROM . Used as above.

Easy to programme and reprogram. Adoptable to changes.

FLASH New type of EPROM that can be programmed repeatedly.

EPROM Allows program updates in the field without changing chips.
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 SELF DIAGNOSTICS - TECHNIQUES USED

RAM Checked by computing a checksum of memory contents and

comparing it against a stored factory value.

RAM Checked by periodically writing a specific data and

reading back the memory contents

A/D Checked by inputing a known value of + / - voltage.

Any off set at a given time, is software corrected.

SETTINGS Checked by checksums or CRC values can be stored and

compared. Often, 2 or 3 copies of settings are stored and
compared.

POWER Checked by monitoring power supply voltage values

SUPPLY from A / D converter.

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FILTERS IN NUMERIC RELAYS

NEED FORE FILTERS

Protective relays must filter unwanted signals and handle only

those needed for trip calculations

SHOULD BE ABLE IDENTIFY AND IGNORE :

- Switch yard noises

- Harmonics
- Exponentially decaying DC offsets
- CCVT Transients
- Reflections from travelling waves
- Capacitive series compensation

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TYPES OF SIGNALS REQUIRED
FOR PROPER PROTECTION

Current, voltage and distance relays :

Require fundamental frequency component signals.

All other signals will interfere with protection process.

Harmonic Restraint Relays :

Require both fundamental & Harmonic components,

each value separately, for decision making process.

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CALIBRATION

VOLTAGE & CURRENT SOURCES

- With 0.001% accuracy

- Traceable to national labs

ENRGY SOURCES

- 0.02% accuracy
- Traceable to national labs

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