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Chapter 12

Motivation comes from…

…the interplay between nature and nurture (the bodily


push/the pull from thought and processes from culture)
Four Perspectives on Motivation
• Instinct theory (evolutionary perspective)

• Drive reduction theory

• Arousal theory

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs


Instinct Theory
• Instinct – complex behaviour with a fixed pattern
throughout a species and is unlearned

▫ Innate/inborn biological force


▫ Imprinting in birds, infant rooting and sucking

• Instinct theory failed to explain most human


motives
▫ Used instinct to name behaviors, rather than to
explain them
 5759 supposed instincts…clearly a fad took hold of the
imagination
Instinct Theory and Evolutionary
Psychology
• Our genes do predispose species-typical
behaviours
• Evolutionary psychologists search for reasons for
our behaviour in our genetic code

• Evolutionary theories – natural selection


favors behaviors that maximize survival and
reproductive success
▫ Why are we motivated to belong to groups?
▫ Why are we motivated to eat?
▫ Why are we motivated to find a romantic partner?
Drive-Reduction Theory

• Replaced Instinct theory

• The idea that a physiological need creates an


aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates
an organism to satisfy the need
____________________ __________________ _______________

Need
Drive Drive-reducing
(e.g., for
(hunger, thirst) behaviors
food, water)
(eating, drinking)
Drive-Reduction Theory
• Behaviour is motivated by a necessity to
reduce need
▫ The focus is homeostasis – the tendency to
maintain a steady internal state (think thermostat)
▫ Staying the same
 E.g., blood glucose levels (hunger or satiation), body
temperature (too hot, too cold)

Need Drive-reducing
Drive
(e.g., for behaviors
(hunger, thirst)
food, water) (eating, drinking)

Rest
Drives and Incentives
• We are pushed by our internal needs to reduce
drives
• We are also pulled by incentives
▫ Incentives are positive or negative stimuli that
motivate behaviour

• For each motivation:


▫ “How is this driven by my inborn physiological needs and
pulled by the environment?”
▫ An internal drive and an external stimulus leads us to be
strongly driven in our behaviour
Need (food)---Hungry (drive) – (eating
soup)
Associate soup with home (incentive)
Need (maintain body heat) –Drive
(feeling cold) – putting on the
sweater
• Spanner in the works for
a toddler…associate
putting on a sweater
with stopping playing

• How motivated are we


now?
• Incentives + or – stimuli
that attract or repel us
Optimal Arousal
• Not all motivated behaviours reduce arousal; Some
motivated behaviours increase arousal

• Optimal Arousal theory:


▫ Even when our biological needs have been met, we feel
driven to experience stimulation (“infovores”)

 E.g., curiosity
 Too little stimulation = Boredom
 Too much stimulation = Stress
Yerkes-Dodson law
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Begins at the base with
needs that must first be
satisfied before higher-
level needs become
active
Maslow
• Maslow said we have a hierarchy of needs:
▫ Physiological
▫ Safety
▫ Belongingness and love
▫ Esteem
▫ Self-actualization
▫ Self-transcendence
• Issue - How does this
explain why people go
on hunger strikes?

• Implication - May not be


quite so hierarchical????
Things to keep in mind…
• Maslow recognized • Maslow estimated
that a given motive that the average
didn’t need to be American had needs
100% complete before met in this way:
moving on to a higher ▫ 85% physiological
need ▫ 70% safety
▫ Our needs are only ▫ 50% belongingness
partially satisfied at and love
any given time ▫ 40% self-esteem
▫ 10% self-
actualization
Other tidbits…
• How a need gets met varies across
cultures
▫ Perhaps being a physician or being a
successful farmer

• Maslow didn’t believe that any


given behavior is motivated by a
single need
▫ Ex. Sexual behaviour can be
motivated by physiological release, a
need to win or show affection, or a
sense of identity, power, etc.
Self-Actualization Survey
• Scoring
▫ Questions 2,5,6,8,9,11,13 and 14 reverse the answers as
follows
 6=1, 5=2, 4=3, 3=4, 2=5,1=6
• Scores range from 15-90
• College students have a mean score of 60
• Factors measure autonomy, self-acceptance,
acceptance of emotions, trust, and responsibility in
interpersonal relations.
• People with high scores:
▫ tend to live in the present, rather then the past with
guilt and regret or in the future with overidealized
goals and fears.
▫ Inner-directed, extraverted, and rational in their
thoughts and behaviors
Self-Actualization Survey
• Scoring
▫ Questions 2,5,6,8,9,11,13 and 14 reverse the
answers as follows
 6=1
 5=2
 4=3
 3=4
 2=5
 1=6
Self-Actualization Survey
• Scores range from 15-90
• College students have a mean score of 60
• Factors measure autonomy, self-acceptance,
acceptance of emotions, trust, and
responsibility in interpersonal relations.
• People with high scores:
▫ tend to live in the present, rather then the past
with guilt and regret or in the future with
overidealized goals and fears.
▫ Inner-directed, extraverted, and rational in
their thoughts and behaviors.
Motivation to eat
Hunger and Eating
•What starts you eating?

• Hunger is complex and is a combination of internal


and external cues
▫ Cultural factors
 Time of day, sights & smells of
favourite foods, etc.

▫ Internal cues
 Generated when our bodies are short of nutrients
Internal Cues
• Physiological factors
 Hunger pangs accompany contractions of the stomach
 Detectors of levels of glucose and fat
 Glucostatic hypothesis (glucose metabolism rather than
overall glucose levels)

• Walter Cannon believed stomach contractions were an


important component in the detection of hunger
▫ Had his colleague swallow a balloon attached to an air pump
to investigate contractions as a hunger cue
However, people whose stomachs have been
removed still experience a sense of hunger in the
general area where the stomach had been
The Hunger-Regulation Cycle
Homeostasis: The physiological aim of drive reduction. It is a state
of equilibrium or stability; to maintain a constant internal state.

• Hypothalamus monitors blood glucose.


• When blood glucose is low, people become hungry.
• Food raises glucose, reduces hunger and eating.
Glucose levels alone are
insufficient and explanation
• People with untreated diabetes
end up with high levels of glucose
circulating in their blood stream
▫ We would expect people to have
low appetites but many patients
with high blood sugar report
feeling hungry all the time
Levels of leptin are assessed
as a means of monitoring fat
stores

When leptin levels are low,


areas of the brain will initiate
eating
Ghrelin is associated with the rewarding aspects of feeding
and orexins also involved in linking feeding, activity level and
sleep
Hypothalamus

• Brain controls food intake


▫ Lateral hypothalamus increases hunger
 Destroy lateral hypothalamus – animals won’t
eat
▫ Ventromedial hypothalamus reduces hunger
 Destroy ventromedial hypothalamus – animals
will not stop eating
Hunger and Eating
• What stops you eating?
▫ Nutrients are not absorbed fully until an hour after a
meal stops
▫ Injecting food into stomach stops hunger
▫ Removing food from stomach restores hunger
▫ Water can reduce hunger
▫ Memory
• those with amnesia can be made to eat repeated meals

• Hunger also changes with


▫ Changes in food type
▫ Changes in exercise
Levels of
cholecystokinin (CCK)
also contribute to
feelings of satiety
How much do we eat?
Eating depends in part on
situational influences.
 Social facilitation: the
presence of others
accentuates our typical
eating habits
 Unit bias: we may eat only
one serving/unit (scoop,
plateful, bun-full) of food,
but will eat more if the
serving size is larger
 Buffet effect: we eat
more if more options are
available
Hunger and Eating –
Environmental effects on eating
• People all over the world seek out sweet and salty foods
▫ Even young infants
• Stressed students eat more snacks – less ‘meal’ food
• People like familiar food but preferences can be
learned/unlearned
▫ China: soy, rice wine & ginger
▫ Greece: olive oil, lemon, oregano
▫ Mexico: tomato, hot chillies
• Learned food associations:
▫ movie  popcorn
▫ baseball park  hot dog.
Hunger and Eating
Set point for body weight
• People who starve quickly replace lost body
weight
• Prisoners who agreed to eat more at first gained
quickly, then added less to their weight
▫ Despite eating 10,000 calories per day!
▫ Came to hate eating
▫ Lost most of the extra weight on returning to normal
diet
Set Point Theory
 Set Point
 the point at which an individual’s “weight
thermostat” is supposedly set
 when the body falls below this weight, an increase
in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act
to restore the lost weight

 Basal Metabolic Rate


 body’s base rate of energy expenditure when the
body is at rest
Hunger and Eating
Body Weights of Twins

• Identical twins are


more similar in
body weight than
are fraternal twins.
• Genetic factors play
a large role in body
weight.
Social Motivation
• Achievement Motivation
▫ Humans seem to be motivated to figure out our
world and master skills, sometimes regardless of
the benefits of the skills or knowledge.

▫ Studies involve looking at differences in how


people set and meet personal goals and go about
acquiring new knowledge or skills.
Hormones and Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivation may have evolved to enable
creatures to pass on their genes. Sexual desire
and response is not as tied to hormone levels in
humans as it is in animals.
During ovulation, women show a rise in
estrogen and also in testosterone.
As this happens, sexual desire rises in women
and also in the men around them (whose
testosterone level rises).
Low levels of testosterone can reduce sexual
motivation.
The Effect of External Stimuli
All effects of external stimuli on sexual
behavior are more common in men than
in women.
The short-term effect of exposure to
images of nudity and sexuality increases Imagined Stimuli
sexual arousal and desire. The brain is involved in
Possible dangers include: sexuality; people with no
genital sensation (e.g.
the distortion of our ideas of what is spinal cord injuries) can feel
appropriate and effective for mutual sexual desire.
sexual satisfaction. The brain also contains
dreams, memories, and
the habit of finding sexual response fantasies that stimulate
through idealized images may lead to sexual desire.
decreased sexual response to real-life Fantasies are not just a
sexual partners. replacement for sexual
activity; they often
accompany sex.
Why do we have Keeping
children
a need to close to
belong? caregivers

Emotional
support to Mutual
get Evolutionary protection
through psychology in a group
crises perspective:
seeking bonds
with others aids
survival in many
ways
Division of Cooperatio
labor to n in
allow hunting
growing and
food sharing
food
Balancing Bonding with Other Needs
 The need to bond with others
is so strong that we can feel
lost without close
relationships.
 However, we also seem to
need autonomy and a sense of
personal competence/efficacy.
There a tension between “me”
and “us,” but these goals can
work together.
 Belonging builds self-esteem
and prepares us for confident
autonomy.
The Need to Belong Leads to:
loyalty to friends,
teams, groups, and
families.
However, the need to
belong also leads to:
• changing our
appearance to win
acceptance.
• staying in abusive
relationships.
• joining gangs,
nationalist groups, and
violent organizations.
• Why are mean girls so powerful?
Social Networking =
Social Connection?
 Connecting online can be
seen as taking turns
reading brief words about
each other, or as an
experience of connection
and/or belonging.
 Portrayal of one’s self
online is often close to
one’s actual sense of self.
 Use of social networking
can become a
compulsion, sacrificing
face-to-face interaction
and in-depth
conversation.
Another Area of Motivation: Work
Why do we work…only for money and other incentives?
The income from work can indirectly satisfy the drive for
food and shelter.
Some are driven by achievement motivation.
In rare cases, the goals and activities of work can feel like a
calling, a fulfilling and socially useful activity. Some people may
seek the optimal work experience called “flow.”

feeling purposefully
engaged, deeply
immersed, and
challenged
52

Expectancy • Value
Theory
and
Theory X vs Theory
Y Managers
`
• Motivation is so much more than…
54

EXPECTANCY THEORIES

People will be motivated


to work hard and do
activities that they value
and that they feel they
can be successful in.
55

Expectancy Theories
• “People will do what they can do when they want
to do it.” The question is ‘what makes them want
to do it?’
• Expectancies refer to beliefs about how we will
fare if we engage in a certain behaviour
 So if we expect to do well then we will be
more likely to engage in the behaviour
 If we feel that the chance of succeeding is
poor we will be less likely to become involved
 (Sounds a little like learned helplessness,
doesn’t it?)
Expectancy Theory
56

• Victor H. Vroom suggests that the motivation to work


depends on the relationships between three factors:
▫ Expectancy: How much a person believes that
working hard will result in a desired level of task
performance.
▫ Instrumentality: How much a person believes that
successful task performance will be followed by
rewards.
▫ Valence: The value a person assigns to the rewards.
Expectancy Theory 57

Multiplier Effect
• Implies that for motivation to be high, Expectancy,
Instrumentality and Valence must be high.
Motivation =
Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
Belief working hard will lead to desired performance
X Belief that success will bring rewards X the
value people assign to the possible rewards
A zero at any location on the right side of the
equation will result in zero motivation.
Expectancy x Value Theory 58

• So the more complicated formula is


Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

And the simplified formula is


Motivation = Expectancy x Value
Expectancy x Value Theory
Example
Math Test Bonus Question (1 mark)
very hard question

What is the expectancy?


- how likely is it that you could solve the problem?
- do you expect that you could do it if you tried?

What is the value?


- 1 mark
- is 1 mark worth all the work you have to do?

So how motivated are you to do the question?


60

Cognitive x Value Theory


• The cognitive x value theory states that goal-
directed behaviour is motivated by two cognitive
judgements:

▫ Firstly, the strength of an individual’s expectation that


engagement in a particular behaviour will lead to goal
obtainment (expectation value)

▫ Secondly, the amount that an individual believes that


their performance will be rewarded combined with the
perceived value of that reward
How could we apply this to motivating
students to study for a particular test?
• How do you help students see that studying will
lead to success on the test?

• How do you help students to see that their


success on the test is valuable?
Put it into practice
• Create a rationale that will convince people to
complete their grad transitions assignments
Expectancy Theory
63

• Victor H. Vroom suggests that the motivation to work


depends on the relationships between three factors:
▫ Expectancy: How much a person believes that
working hard will result in a desired level of task
performance.
▫ Instrumentality: How much a person believes that
successful task performance will be followed by
rewards.
▫ Valence: The value a person assigns to the rewards.
Classical Approaches to Management
• McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y
▫ According to Theory X,
managers believe workers
 dislike work
 lack ambition
 are irresponsible
 are resistant to change
 prefer to be led
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

▫ According to Theory Y,
managers believe workers
 are willing to work
 are capable of self control
 accept responsibility
 are imaginative and creative
 self-directed
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
▫ Managers create self-fulfilling
prophesies
▫ Theory X managers create dependent
and reluctant workers
▫ Theory Y managers create workers
who perform as expected with
initiative and enthusiasm
 central to notions of empowerment
Organizational Psychology
Goals of Organizational
Psychology Research
Organizational Maximizing worker motivation,
psychology: satisfaction, and productivity
studying and
consulting about
how worker Understanding organizational
productivity and structures and dynamics
motivation is
affected by
different patterns Facilitating organizational change
of worker-
management
engagement,
leadership, and Improving teamwork and leadership
teamwork
What is your ideal workplace?
• Describe the characteristics or qualities that
your ideal workplace would have.
Satisfaction & Engagement
Employees who are more
Employees who are engaged (connected,
satisfied in an organization
passionate, and energetic) get
are likely to stay longer. more work done.

Because a happy worker is a productive worker,


organizational psychologists study factors related to
employee satisfaction, such as whether a worker:
feels that they personally matter to the organization
and to other people.
feels a sense that effort pays off in the quality of the
work and in rewards such as salary and benefits.
Employee Engagement: Three Levels
Many employees are engaged Organizational
(connected, passionate, and psychologists find that
energetic about the people are most engaged in
companies/organizations they work when they:
work for). know what is expected of
them.
Some are not engaged; they have the materials they
show up and get tasks done need to do the work.
but show little passion or have opportunities to
energy. excel.
feel fulfilled.
Others are actively feel part of something
disengaged; they are important.
unhappy, alienated, and not
invested, even undermining have opportunities to
what people are trying to grow/develop in the job.
accomplish.
What are the implications for
management?
Theory X managers tend to blame
problems on __________________
(like some instructors blame problems
on students!)
Theory Y managers _______________
for problems “no bad troops, only bad
officers”)
What are the implications for
management?
Theory X managers tend to blame
problems on employees (like some
instructors blame problems on
students!)
Theory Y managers take responsibility
for problems “no bad troops, only bad
officers”)

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