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Chapter 1(a) -Introduction

and History of Concrete


Dr. JK
NITT
Introduction
• Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded
together with a fluid cement which hardens over time.
History of Concrete
• Concrete-like materials were used since 6500 BC by the Nabataea traders
or Bedouins who occupied and controlled a series of oases and
developed a small empire in the regions of southern Syria and northern
Jordan. They discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-
cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the
construction of rubble-wall houses, concrete floors, and underground
waterproof cisterns. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the
reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert. Some of these
structures survive to this day.
Classical era (700 BC – 200AD)

In both Roman and Egyptian times, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic
ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater. Similarly, the Romans knew that
adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and
adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and
the introduction of pyro-clastic clays creates further fracture resistance.
• During the Middle Ages, concrete technology crept backward. After
the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD, the techniques for making
pozzolan cement were lost until the discovery in 1414 of manuscripts
describing those techniques rekindled interest in building with
concrete.
• It wasn’t until 1793 that the technology took a big leap forward when
John Smeaton discovered a more modern method for producing
hydraulic lime for cement. He used limestone containing clay that was
fired until it turned into clinker, which was then ground it into
powder. He used this material in the historic rebuilding of the
Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall, England.
Smeaton’s version (the third ) of the Eddystone
Lighthouse, completed in 1759.
After 126 years, it failed due to erosion of the rock upon
which it stood.
• Finally, in 1824, an Englishman named Joseph Aspdin invented Portland
cement by burning finely ground chalk and clay in a kiln until the carbon
dioxide was removed. It was named “Portland” cement because it
resembled the high-quality building stones found in Portland, England.
It’s widely believed that Aspdin was the first to heat alumina and silica
materials to the point of vitrification, resulting in fusion. During
vitrification, materials become glass-like. Aspdin refined his method by
carefully proportioning limestone and clay, pulverizing them, and then
burning the mixture into clinker, which was then ground into finished
cement.
Composition of Modern Portland Cement
• Before Portland cement was discovered, and for some years afterward, large
quantities of natural cement were used, which were produced by burning a
naturally occurring mixture of lime and clay. Because the ingredients of natural
cement are mixed by nature, its properties vary widely. Modern Portland cement
is manufactured to detailed standards. Some of the many compounds found in it
are important to the hydration process and the chemical characteristics of
cement. It’s manufactured by heating a mixture of limestone and clay in a kiln to
temperatures between 1,300° F and 1,500° F. Up to 30% of the mix becomes
molten but the remainder stays in a solid state, undergoing chemical reactions
that can be slow. Eventually, the mix forms a clinker, which is then ground into
powder. A small proportion of gypsum is added to slow the rate of hydration and
keep the concrete workable longer. Between 1835 and 1850, systematic tests to
determine the compressive and tensile strength of cement were first performed,
along with the first accurate chemical analyses. It wasn’t until about 1860 that
Portland cements of modern composition were first produced.
Kilns
• In the early days of Portland cement production, kilns were vertical and
stationary. In 1885, an English engineer developed a more efficient kiln
that was horizontal, slightly tilted, and could rotate. The rotary kiln
provided better temperature control and did a better job of mixing
materials. By 1890, rotary kilns dominated the market. In 1909, Thomas
Edison received a patent for the first long kiln. This kiln, installed at the
Edison Portland Cement Works in New Village, New Jersey, was 150 feet
long. This was about 70 feet longer than the kilns in use at the time.
Industrial kilns today may be as long as 500 feet.
Building Milestones
• Although there were exceptions, during the 19th century, concrete was
used mainly for industrial buildings. It was considered socially unacceptable
as a building material for aesthetic reasons. The first widespread use of
Portland cement in home construction was in England and France between
1850 and 1880 by Frenchman Francois Coignet, who added steel rods to
prevent the exterior walls from spreading, and later used them as flexural
elements. The first home built using reinforced concrete was a servant’s
cottage constructed in England by William B. Wilkinson in 1854. In 1875,
American mechanical engineer William Ward completed the first reinforced
concrete home in the U.S. It still stands in Port Chester, New York. Ward
was diligent in maintaining construction records, so a great deal is known
about this home. It was built out of concrete because of his wife’s fear of
fire, and in order to be more socially acceptable, it was designed to
resemble masonry. This was the start of what is today a $35 billion
industry that employs more than 2 million people in the U.S. alone.
The home built by William Ward is commonly called Ward’s Castle
Court Street in Bellefontaine, Ohio, which is the oldest concrete street in the
U.S.
Rome’s Risorgimento Bridge
Hoover Dam, USA

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