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In a basic vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant
enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor and is cooled to the saturated
liquid state in the condenser. VCR - Cycle
It is then throttled to the evaporator
pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs
heat from the refrigerated space
VCR - Cycle
The principal work and heat transfer that
occurs in the system are shown below,
these quantities being taken as positive in
the directions indicated by the arrows in
the Fig. 6.4.
In the analyses, each component is first
separately considered.
The evaporator, in which the desired
refrigeration effect is achieved, will be
considered first.
Considering a control volume enclosing
the refrigerant side of the evaporator,
conservation of mass and energy applied
to this control volume together give the
rate of heat transfer per unit mass of
refrigerant flow in the evaporator as:
Qe
qe h1 h4
m
VCR - Cycle
Next consider the compressor.
It is usually adequate to assume that there is no heat transfer to or
from the compressor.
Conservation of mass and energy rate applied to a control volume
enclosing the compressor then give:
Wi
wi h2 h1
m
For a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the condenser,
the rate of heat transfer from the refrigerant per unit mass of
refrigerant is:
Qc
qc h2 h3
m
VCR - Cycle
Finally, the refrigerant at state 3 enters the expansion valve and
expands to the evaporator pressure.
qe Qe / m h1 h4
COP
wi Wi / m h2 h1
LIQUID SUBCOOING
In practice some degree of subcooling
may be acquired, and the point 3 moves to
the left of the saturated liquid on the
pressure-enthalpy diagram, as shown in
Figure.
Subcooling is the process of cooling
condensed gas beyond what is required
for the condensation process.
Subcooling is sensible heat and is
Subcooling of the liquid and superheating
measured in degrees. of the vapor
If it was possible to further cool down the
liquid to some lower value, say upto 3’,
then the net refrigeration effect will be
increased by
The suction line usually passes though warm surroundings, then heat
transfer to the vapor can take place, which will cause the temperature
increase.
• Refrigerant
• Evaporator/Chiller
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Receiver
• Thermostatic expansion valve
(TXV)
REFRIGERANT
• Desirable properties:
– High latent heat of vaporization - max cooling
– Non-toxicity (no health hazard)
– Desirable saturation temp (for operating pressure)
– Chemical stability (non-flammable/non-explosive)
– Ease of leak detection
– Low cost
– Readily available
LOW SIDE OPERATION
• Refrigerants have low boiling points
• When liquid boils, it absorbs large amounts of heat
• Amount of heat absorbed in evaporator is proportional to
amount of refrigerant boiled
• High side Components
• Expansion device
• Evaporator
• Accumulator (if equipped)
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EXPANSION DEVICES
• The expansion device separates the high side from the low
side and provides a restriction for the compressor to pump
against.
• There are two styles of expansion devices:
• The TXV can open or close to change flow. It is controlled
by the superheat spring, thermal bulb that senses
evaporator outlet temperature, and evaporator pressure
• Most OTs have a fixed diameter orifice
30
TXV SYSTEM
Block Valve
33
THERMAL EXPANSION VALVES, TXVS
• Variable valve that can change size of opening in response to
system load
• Opens or closes depending on evaporator pressure and
temperature
34
EVAPORATOR OPERATION
35
EVAPORATOR/CHILLER
38
COMPRESSOR
• Superheated Vapor:
– Enters as low press, low temp vapor
– Exits as high press, high temp vapor
• Temp: creates differential (DT) promotes heat transfer
• Press: Tsat allows for condensation at warmer temps
• Increase in energy provides the driving force to circulate
refrigerant through the system
COMPRESSORS
There is a large variety of compressors.
Some of variations are:
The compressor manufacturer
Piston, vane, or scroll type
The piston and cylinder arrangement
How the compressor is mounted
Style and position of ports
Type and number of drive belts
Compressor displacement
Fixed or variable displacement
40
COMPRESSOR OPERATION
Out/Discharge: High
In/Suction: Low Pressure, about 200 psi
Pressure, about 30 psi & High Temperature,
& Low Temperature, above ambient
close to freezing
41
PISTON COMPRESSORSReed Valve Plate
42
SCOTCH YOKE COMPRESSORS
Discharge Reed
Suction Reed
A Scotch yoke compressor has two pairs of
pistons that are driven by a slider block on
the crankshaft. The pistons are connected
by a yoke.
Pistons Yoke
43
SCROLL COMPRESSORS
Orbiting
Fixed Scroll
The orbiting scroll is driven by the
crankshaft and moves in a small Scroll
circular orbit. The fixed scroll
remains stationary
Shaft Seal
Clutch Assembly
44
SWASH PLATE COMPRESSORS
Pistons
Reed Plate
The swash plate is mounted at an
angle onto the drive shaft. It drives
three double-ended pistons. Two sets
of reeds control the refrigerant flow in
and out of the cylinders,
Swash Plate
Shaft Seal
Clutch Assembly
45
VANE COMPRESSORS
Rotor
Vane
The rotor is driven by the clutch and
driveshaft. The vanes move in and out of
the rotor to follow the outer wall to
pump refrigerant.
Shaft Seal
Discharge
Reed
46
WOBBLE PLATE COMPRESSORS
Piston
Hot, high pressure gas is pumped from the compressor to enter the condenser.
The gas gives up its
heat to the air passing through the condenser. Removing heat from the hot gas causes it
to change state and become liquid.
48
CONDENSER TYPES
49
SERPENTINE CONDENSER
50
PARALLEL FLOW CONDENSER
51
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Condensers have to move heat from the refrigerant to the air.
Evaporators must move heat from air to the refrigerant.
Both require a lot of contact area for both air and refrigerant.
Both require free movement of air and refrigerant.
52
RECEIVER DRYERS
Barb
A receiver dryer is mounted in the liquid line of a
TXV system. It is used to: Connections,
Note Sight
•to store a reserve of refrigerant. Glass
•hold the desiccant bag that removes water from
the refrigerant.
Male Flare
•filter the refrigerant and remove debris particles. Connections
•provide a sight glass so refrigerant flow can be
observed.
•provide a location for switch mounting.
Male O-ring
Connections,
Note Switch
53
PROBLEM-1
An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle operates at steady state
with Refrigerant 134a as the working fluid. Saturated vapor enters the
compressor at 2 bar, and saturated liquid exits the condenser at 8 bar. The
mass flow rate of refrigerant is 7 kg/min. Determine
a) the compressor power, in kW
b) the refrigerating capacity, in tons
c) the coefficient of performance
Analyzing vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems
Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
An ideal cycle has no irreversibilities within the evaporator and
condenser, and there are no frictional pressure drops. Compression
is isentropic. The T-s diagram is shown on the next slide.
Process 1-2s: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant;
Process 2s-3: Heat transfer from refrigerant to outside air, at
constant pressure;
Process 3-4: Throttling process to a two-phase mixture at lower
pressure;
Process 4-1: Heat transfer to the refrigerant as it flows at constant
pressure through the evaporator;
Analyzing vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems
As the refrigerant passes through the evaporator, the heat
transfer per unit mass of refrigerant flowing is:
Q in
( h1 h4 ); m
is refrigerant mass flow
m
A ton of refrigeration is equal to 200 Btu/min or 211 kJ/min.
Work done by compressor per unit mass flow of refrigerant is
W c
( h2 h1 );
m
Analyzing vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems
Heat rejected by the refrigerant:
Q out
( h2 h3 );
m
Expansion valve:
h4 h3
Coefficient of performance:
Q in
1 (h h )
m
4
;
Wc ( h2 h1 )
m
SOLUTION
Let us first get the properties at each state in the cycle.
State 1: p1 = 2 bar, sat vapor. h1 = 241.30 kJ/kg, s1 = 0.9253
kJ/kg.K
State 2: p2 = 8 bar, s2 = s1, h2 = 269.92 kJ/kg
State 3: p3 = 8 bar, sat. liquid, h3 = 93.42 kJ/kg
State 4: Throttling process, h4 = h3 = 93.42 kJ/kg
a) The compressor power is:
7
WC m (h2 h1 ) ( kg / s)(269.92 241.30)kJ / kg 3.34kW
60
Solution
b) The refrigerating capacity is
Answers: (a) 7.41 kW, 1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06
Problem-3
Consider an ideal refrigeration cycle which uses R-12 as
the working fluid. The temperature of the refrigerant in
the evaporator is –20C and in the condenser it is 40C.
The refrigerant is circulated at the rate of 0.03kg/s.
Determine the coefficient of performance and the
capacity of the plant in rate of refrigeration.
For each control volume analyzed, the thermodynamic
model is the R-12 tables. Each process is SSSF with no
change in kinetic or potential energy.
Control volume: Compressor.
Inlet state: T1 known, saturated vapor; state fixed.
Exit state: P2 known(saturation pressure at T3).
wc h2 h1
s2 s1
At T3=40C
Pg P2 0.9607 MPa
h1 178.61kJ / kg
s1 s2 0.7082
T2 50.8o C
h2 211.38kJ / kg
wc h2 h1 32.77kJ / kg
Control volume: Expansion valve.
Inlet state: T3 known, saturated liquid; state fixed.
Exit state: T4 known.
h3 h4 74.53kJ / kg
Control volume: Evaporator.
Inlet state: State 4 known.
Exit state: State 1 known.
qL h1 h4 104.08kJ / kg
qL
3.18
wc
Capacity 3.12kW
• Problem-3
Consider a 300 kJ/min refrigeration system that operates on an ideal
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated
vapor at 140 kPa and is compressed to 800 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine the:
Presented by
Atmospheric air is not completely dry but a mixture of dry air and
water vapor.
In atmospheric air, the content water vapor varies from 0 to 3% by
mass.
The processes of air-conditioning and food refrigeration often
involve removing water from the air (dehumidifying), and adding
water to the air (humidifying).
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR
(1) Dry bulb temperature t:
Dry bulb temperature is the temperature of the air, as measured by an
ordinary thermometer.
The temperature of water vapor is the same as that of the dry air in
moist air.
Such a thermometer is called a dry-bulb thermometer in psychrometry,
because its bulb is dry.
Dry Bulb
Wet Bulb
(3) Dew point temperature tDP:
When the unsaturated moist air is
cooled at constant vapor pressure or
at constant humidity ratio, to a
temperature, the moist air becomes
saturated and the condensation of
moisture starts, this temperature is
called dew point temperature of the
moist air.
Condensation occurs at the Dew Point
Temperature
(4) Relative humidity Ф:
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of the water
vapor in a given moist air to the mole fraction of water vapor in a saturated
moist air at the same temperature and the same atmospheric pressure.
Relative humidity is usually expressed in percentage (%).
From the ideal gas relations, relative humidity can be expressed as
xw Pw
x w, sat Pw, sat
xw ---- the mole fraction of the water vapor in moist air;
x w , sat ---- mole fraction of water vapor in a saturated moist
air at the same temperature;
w B Pw,sat
wsat B Pw
Only two properties are needed to characterize the moist air because
the point of intersection of any two properties lines defines the state-
point of air on a psychrometric chart.
Once this point is located on the chart, the other air properties can be
read directly.
AIR CONDITIONS ON THE
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
220
200
Humidity Ratio (grains/lb of dry air)
180
160
140
120
80
humidity ratio
60
40
wet bulb
dry bulb
20 relative humidity
200
Humidity Ratio (grains/lb of dry air)
180
100
80
60
40
20
humidity ratio
A
70°F 80°F
[21.2°C [26.7°C
]
dry-bulb ]
temperature
AIR HANDLING PROCESSES
1. Sensible Heating
2. Sensible Cooling
3. Humidification
4. Dehumidification
5. Cooling-Dehumidification
6. Heating-Humidification
SENSIBLE COOLING
• The sensible cooling happens when the air is cooled without altering the specific
humidity. During this process, the relative humidity of the air will increase.
• The sensible cooling can only take place under the condition when the temperature
of the cooling coil is not below the dew point temperature of the air being processed.
SENSIBLE HEATING
• The sensible heating is similar to sensible cooling, but with the dry bulb temperature
increasing.
• It should be noted that there should be no water within the heating system because the
evaporation of the water will increase the specific humidity of the air.
HUMIDIFICATION
• In humidification process the moisture is added to air without changing the
dry-bulb temperature, the air condition moves upward along a dry-bulb
temperature line.
DEHUMIDIFICATION
• In dehumidification process the moisture is removed from the air without
changing its dry-bulb temperature, the air condition moves downward along
a dry-bulb temperature line.
CHANGE IN DRY BULB
TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE
COMBINED PROCESSES
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN
MOIST AIR AND SOLID SURFACE
There are a lot of heat exchangers in refrigeration and air conditioning
systems.
Moist air makes heat transfer and/or mass transfer with the solid
surface of the heat exchangers.
If the solid surface is dry during the process, there is heat transfer only.
However, if the solid surface is wetted, there are both heat transfer and
mass transfer.
1. Sensible heat transfer between moist air and solid surface
The sensible heat transfer rate dqsensible, KW, from the wetted surface to
the moist air is
dqsensible dA (t s t a )
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN
MOIST AIR AND SOLID SURFACE
2. Mass transfer between moist air and solid surface
The mass transfer rate of water vapor dm, kgw/s, from the wetted
surface to the moist air is
dm D dA (ws wa )
3. Latent heat transfer between moist air and solid surface
The latent heat transfer rate dqlatent , KW, from the wetted surface to the
moist air is
dqlatent D dA ( ws wa )h fg
Process: from one state to another
Human comfort zone
FORCED VENTILATION
EVAPORATIVE COOLING
Fogging
EVAPORATIVE COOLING
113
CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS
• Outside air is drawn in, filtered
and heated before it passes
through the main air
conditioning devices. The
colored lines in the lower part
of the diagram show the
changes of temperature and of
water vapor concentration
(not RH) as the air flows
through the system.
TOTAL AIR CONDITIONING
• Variable fresh air mixer and dust and pollutant filtration.
• Supplementary heating with radiators in the outer rooms and individual mini
heater and
• Humidifier in the air stream to each room.
LOW TEMPERATURE ENGINEERING
(Cryogenic Technology)
Cryogenic Engineering
Definition : Technology concerning with techniques,
Definition : processes and equipment necessary for
Temp. limit : producing low temperature
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Air
Hydrogen
Helium
Air
Argon
Neon
Fluorine
Methane
Conduction cooling
Evaporative cooling
Joule-Thompson expansion
Adiabatic expansion
Evaporative cooling
Pot-in-pot refrigerator
Adiabatic expansion
Liquefaction
system
Cryogenic Refrigeration
system
system
Gas
separation
system
Claude system
Kapitza system
Heylandt system
h1 h2
Liquid yield , y
h1 hf
h1 h2 h3 he
Liquid yield , y x
h1 hf h 1 hf
1 December 2019 133
Kapitza liquefaction system
Claude refrigerator
Kapitza refrigerator
Heylandt refrigerator
Solid-media refrigerators
Paramagnetic cooling system
139