Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting

Forming

Sheet metal processing

Powder- and Ceramics Processing

Plastics processing

Cutting

Joining

Surface treatment
PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 2
 Introduction
 Forging is defined as the process in which metal is plastically
deformed with application of temperature and pressure. It is used
to change not only the shape but also the properties of the metal
because it refines the grain size and therefore improves its
structure. Forging is a cost-effective way to produce net-shape or
near-net-shape components. Forged parts are used in high
performance, high strength and high reliability applications
where tension, stress, load and the human safety are critical
considerations. They are also employed in a wide range of
demanding environments, including highly corrosive and
extreme temperatures and pressures.
 Various parameters such as complexity of the part, friction
between dies and work pieces, type of press, die and workpiece
temperature, material of workpiece govern the forging process.
Forging process is said to be successful if die cavity is completely
filled and stress in the workpiece is less than ultimate stress
corresponding to the workpiece material, with minimum force.
Forging

[Heated] metal is beaten with a heavy hammer to give it the required shape

Hot forging,

open-die
 What is Forging?

 Forging may be defined as the plastic flow of metal by the

application of compressive forces in which a metal is altered in
shape permanently without rupture.

 Hence, it involves the shaping of metal using localized compressive

forces.

The application of heat increases the plasticity of metals thus making

it possible to conduct the operations necessary for the fabrication of
various shapes of products.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 7

 about Forging…….

 Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.

 Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580
metric tons.

 In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with

hammers powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam.

These hammers may have reciprocating weights in the thousands of

kilograms. Smaller power hammers, 230 kg or less reciprocating weight,
and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 8

 Applications of Forging &
Some Disadvantages of Forging
 Wrenches, and automotive crankshafts and piston
connecting rods are typical articles formed by forging

 Some disadvantages of forging are the high cost and

high residual stress produced.

 Most forging processes are expensive because of

the cost of making dies, so long production runs
are usually necessary to reduce costs.

 The high residual stresses in forgings are often

released when they are machined and cause
warping when heavy cuts are taken.
 ADVANTAGES OF FORGING
 Metal flow and grain structure can be
controlled
 Results in good strength and toughness
 Near net shape (low buy to fly ratio)
 Parts of reasonable complexity can be
created
 • Landing gear
 • Connecting rods
 • Complex shafts
 Types of Forging

 Forging processes can be performed at various temperatures

However they are generally classified by whether the metal temperature

is above or below the recrystallization temperature.

If the temperature is above the material's recrystallization temperature it

is hot forging

If the temperature is below the material's recrystallization temperature it

is cold forging

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 11

 Advantages of Forging

 Forging can produce a piece that is stronger and tough, than an

equivalent cast or machined part.

Forged parts show improved strength characteristics.

As forged parts have a high strength to weight ratio, the material
required to produce a component is less

Hot forged parts do not require hardening of the material.

Internal defects like segregation, cracks and porosity are eliminated

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 12

 Advantages of Forging

Components can be produced to the closer tolerances.

It results in saving in time and material as compare to production of the

same component by other manufacturing process.

Forged components has ability to withstand higher loads during the

service

Materials like iron and steel, which are widely used for manufacturing,
can be easily hot forged.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 13

 Disadvantages of Forging

Brittle material like cast iron can not be forged.

Cost of forging dies are high

Complex shapes can not be easily forged. They are generally produced
by casting process.

The process is not suitable for mass production.

To relieve the internal stresses in the material, Cold forging always be
followed by hardening process.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 14

 FORGING TOOLS
 HAMMERS
 CHISELS
 TONGS
 DRIFTS
 FULLERS
 SWAGES
 FLATTERS AND SET HAMMERS
FORGING TOOLS
 FORGING
OPERATIONS
 For giving desired shape to the workpiece, one or more
of the following processes should be used.
1. Upsetting
2. Drawing out or drawing down
3. Cutting
4. Bending
5. Punching & Drifting
6. Setting down & finishing
7. Forge Welding
 1.UPSETTING /
JUMPING /HEADING
 Process of increasing cross
section of the workpiece by
corresponding decrease in
its length.
 Metal heated till it acquires
plastic stage(becomes soft
enough for deformation)
 If a bar length which is not
to be jumped is cooled
abruptly by quenching in
water.
2.DRAWING OUT / DRAWING
DOWN
 Reverse of Upsetting
 Length increases ; width decreases
 The pre-determined length of the bar is
heated to the plastic state, followed by
cooling of the unwanted length for
drawing by sudden quenching in water.
 3.CUTTING

 This solves the purpose

of removing the extra
length (and other
dimensions), before
finishing the job.
 Hot and cold chisels
are used for cutting.
 4.BENDING

 Bending of bars, flats

and other similar
material to produce
bent shapes such as
angles, ovals and
circles.
5.PUNCHING AND DRIFTING

 Punching is a process of
producing holes by forcing
the punch through the work.
 In Drifting, a drift is made to
pass through the punched
hole to produce a finished
hole of the required size.
 6.SETTING DOWN AND
FINISHING

 Setting Down: Operation

through which the round
corner is removed, to make it
square, by means of Set
Hammer.
 Finishing: Operation through
which the unevenness of a flat
surface is removed by means of
a flatter.
 7.FORGE WELDING
 Two pieces of same metal which
are to be joined together are heated
to white hot temperature where
both of them fuse into a single
object.
 Temperature has an important role;
incorrect temperature will spoil the
joint. If higher than required, the
piece will melt and disturb the
shape; if lower, the joint wouldn’t
be established.
 Basic Operations of Forgings

Upsetting

 When a piece of raw material is worked in such a way that its length is
shortened and either or both its thickness and width increased, the piece
is said to be upset and operation is called as upsetting

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 35

 Basic Operations of Forgings
Heading…..

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 36

 Basic Operations of Forgings

Fullering

 It is the operation of reducing the raw material between the two ends at
the central place, so as to increase its length.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 37

 Basic Operations of Forgings

Edging

 The function of edging or rolling operation is to distribute the metal

longitudinally by moving metal from the portion of the raw material
where it is excess to the portion where it is deficient.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 38

 Basic Operations of Forgings

Drawing

 The operation by which reduction in size of the material at only one

end, is termed as Drawing

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 39

 Operations of Forgings

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 40

Classification of Metal Fabrication Techniques

FIGURE 11.6 Classification scheme of metal fabrication techniques

discussed in this chapter.
 Temperature in Metalworking
 Forming Operations  are those in which the shape of a
metal piece is changed by plastic deformation

 Any process that changes the shape of a raw stock without

changing its phase

 Forming processes are commonly classified into hot-

working and cold-working operations.

 Example products:
 Al/Steel frame of doors and windows, coins, springs,
Elevator doors, cables and wires, sheet-metal, sheet-metal
parts…
 Hot Working
 Hot-working is defined as deformation under
conditions of temperature and strain rate such that
recrystallization takes place simultaneously with the
deformation. Relatively high T
 Recrystallization leads to very large deformation
 Hot-working processes such as rolling, extrusion,
or forging typically are used in the first step of
converting a cast ingot into a wrought product
 Deformation energy requirements are less than
for cold work
 Most metals experience some surface oxidation,
which results in material loss and a poor final
surface finish
 Cold Working
 The deformation carried out under conditions where
recovery/recrytallization are not effective. Relatively
low T

 Cold-working operations are usually carried out

in several steps, with intermediate annealing
operations introduced to soften the cold-worked
metal and restore the ductility

 A higher quality surface finish

 Closer dimensional control of the finished piece
 Cold-working of a metal results in an increase in
strength or hardness and a decrease in ductility
Methods of Hot Forging
Drop Forging
This process is used for mass production of identical parts
This operation is done in closed impression dies by means of drop
hammers.
The die is made of two halves
The upper die is attached to the hammer and lower is attached to the
anvil
The heated raw metal is kept on lower die and the top die is allowed to
fall suddenly on the lower die.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 45

 Methods of Hot Forging

Diagram of Drop
Forging Press

The drop forging method is suitable

to manufacture car axles, connecting
rods of I C Engine, crank shafts, leaf
springs, crane hooks, jet engine
blades etc.

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 46

Methods of Hot Forging
Press Forging

Hammering action is relatively slow squeezing instead of delivery heavy

blows

It is similar to drop forging only in this case the lower movement of the
ram / Upper die, is slow.

It is more accurate method than drop forging as in press forging metal
penetrates deeply as it gives the time to flow the metal.

47
 Methods of Hot Forging

Diagram of Forging
Press

The drop forging method is

suitable to manufacture large
lever flanges, propellers, hollow
bodies, railway wheel disks,
panel etc. Hydraulically
Operated Press

Mechanically
Operated Press

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 49

 Methods of Hot Forging
Actual Diagram of Press Forging

PICT,Pune Presentation # 1: Smithy & Forging 50

 Methods of Cold Forgings
Cold Heading
 The end of the metal piece which is at room temperature (i.e.
temperature below its recrystallization temperature) is given the desired
shaped

51
Methods of Cold Forgings

Cold Forming / Rolling

 The end of the metal piece which is at room temperature (i.e.
temperature below its recrystallization temperature) is given the desired
shaped

52
 Questions

1. What is Forging ?
2. What are different types of forgings?
3. Explain in detail the basic operations of forgings?
4. Explain in detail the operations of Hot Forgings ?
5. Explain in detail the operations of Cold Forgings ?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of forgings ?

53
 Open Die Forging
 Most forging processes begin with open die forging
 Open die forging is hot mechanical forming between
flat or shaped dies in which the metal flow is not
completely restricted
 The stock is laid on a flat anvil while the flat face of the
forging hammer is struck against the stock.
 The equipment may range from the anvil and hammer
to giant hydraulic presses

Open Die Forging

Stages in Open-Die Forging

(a) forge hot billet to max diameter

(b) “fuller: tool to mark step-locations

(c) forge right side

(d) reverse part, forge left side

(e) finish (dimension control)

[source:www.scotforge.com]
 Closed Die Forging
 The shaping of hot metal within the cavities or walls of
two dies that come together to completely enclose the
workpiece

Closed Die Forging

 Impression and Closed Die Forging

• Use dies with the approximate end shape

• Usually requires more than one die to complete
process
• Fullering and Edging dies prepare material to take
up die shape
– Fullering moves material away from center
– Edging moves material away from edges
• Flashing produced from excess material
• Often used to ensure good die filling
 • Advantages
 – Produces near net shape
 – Material properties tailored to application

 • Disadvantages
 – High die costs
 – Highly skilled labor required
 Precision Forging
 • A further development of closed die forging
 • Close calculation of material required to fill die minimizes
scrap and flashing
 • Dies have more detail minimizing subsequent shaping
operations

 • Advantages
 – Little subsequent shaping
 – Good to excellent properties

 • Disadvantages
 – Expensive
 – Difficult to control
Characteristics of Forging
Processes
Quality of forged parts

Surface finish/Dimensional control:

Better than casting (typically)

Stronger/tougher than cast/machined parts of same material

[source:www.scotforge.com]
 Hot forging Temperatures
Material Temperature
Range (oC)

 Aluminum alloys 400-550

 Magnesium alloys 250-350
 Copper alloys 600-900
 Carbon and low alloy steels 850-1150
 Stainless steels 1100-1250
 Titanium alloys 700-950
 Iron based superalloys 1050-1180
 Tungsten alloys 1200-1300
 Shape Classification for Forging

Mechanical Metallurgy, G. E. Dieter, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1986

 Rolling
 The process of plastically deforming a metal by passing it between
rolls; a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses
exerted by the rolls .
 This is the most widely used metalworking process because it lends itself
to high production and close control of the final product.

 Important Applications:
 Steel Plants,
 Raw stock production (sheets, tubes, Rods, etc.)
 Screw manufacture
Rolling

Hot-rolling

Cold-rolling
 Hot Rolling & Cold Rolling
 The principal rolling processes are hot rolling
and cold rolling
 Hot rolling is the most common method of
refining the cast structure of ingots and billets
to make primary shapes
 Bars of circular or hexagonal cross section
like I beams, channels, and railroad rails are
produced in great quantity by hot rolling with
grooved rolls
 Cold rolling is most often a secondary forming
process that is used to make bar, sheet, strip,
and foil with superior surface finish and
dimensional tolerances
 Rolling Basics

Sheets are rolled in multiple stages (why ?)

tf Vf Vf
to to tf
Vo
Vo

stationary die

Screw manufacture:
rolling die
thread rolling machine

Reciprocating flat thread-rolling dies

 Extrusion
 A bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a
compressive force that is applied to a ram
 The extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape
and a reduced cross-sectional area.
 Extrusion products include rods and tubing, but shapes
of irregular cross-sections may be produced form the
more readily extrudable metals, like Al.
 Extrusion is increasingly utilized in the working of metals
difficult to form, like stainless steels, Ni-based alloys,
and other high-temperature materials
EXTRUSION- DIRECT AND
INDIRECT
DIRECT
INDIRECT
Extrusion

Metal forced/squeezed out through a hole (die)

[source:www.magnode.com]

Typical use: ductile metals (Cu, Steel, Al, Mg), Plastics, Rubbers

Common products:

Al frames of white-boards, doors, windows, …

 Extrusion of Tubing
 To produce tubing by extrusion, a mandrel must be
fastened to the end of the extrusion ram
 The mandrel extends to the entrance of the extrusion
die, and the clearance between the mandrel and the
die wall determines the wall thickness of the extruded
tube
 One method of extruding a tube is to use a hollow
billet for the starting material
 Drawing
 Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through
a die having a tapered bore by means of a
tensile force that is applied on the exit side
 Rod, wire and tubing products are commonly
fabricated in this way
 Wiredrawing usually starts with a coil of hot-
rolled rod
 Draw speeds vary from about 30 to 300 ft/min
 In general the term wire refers to small
diameter products under 5 mm which may be
drawn rapidly on multiple-die machines
Drawing

Similar to extrusion, except: pulling force is applied

stock (bar) die

wire

F (pulling force)

Commonly used to make wires from round bars

WIRE DRAWING
WIRE DRAWING
AUDI engine block
V6 engine block
BMW cylinder head
Brake assembly
Impellers
 Crank Shaft

Also see: http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine7.htm

 FORGING
 Definition: A manufacturing
process involving shaping of metal at a
temperature near recrystallization temperature,
using compressive forces delivered through
a hammer (often a power hammer).
 Types:
Hot Working

Above Below
Recrystallization Recrystallization
Temperature Temperature Cold Working
 CASTING DEFECTS
 Factors responsible for production of defects in the casting:
1. Design of casting
2. Design of pattern equipment
3. Moulding and core-making equipment
4. Mould and core materials
5. Gating and riser
6. Moulding and core-making techniques
7. Melting and pouring
8. Metal composition
 Following slides will display what all defects can occur in the casting, their
causes & possible solutions
 1.BLOW HOLES

 Description: cavities
appearing on the
surface of the casting.
 Reason:
 Excess moisture in
moulding sand
 Cores not adequately
vented(expelled) off air
 Remedies:
 2.POROSITY
 Description:
 Minute cavities of trapped gases
 Too small to be viewed by naked
eyes (X-rays required)
 Reason:
 Gases trapped during solidification
 Moisture in air, mould or furnace
 More pronounced with high
pouring temperature & slow
solidification
 Less flux used
 Remedies:
 Regulate pouring temperature
 Increase flux proportion
3.VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE
 Description: During
solidification, a decrease
in volume is observed
 Reason:
 Improper cooling
 Faulty gating system
 Remedies: Ensure proper
gating & risering system
 4.MISRUN & COLD SHUTS
 Description: A kind of
incomplete casting
 Reason:
 Faulty design
 Faulty gating system
 Lack of fluidity in molten metal
 Remedies:
 Modify design
 Modify gating system
 Adjust proper pouring
temperature in order to ensure
fluidity
 5. INCLUSIONS
 Description: Any separate
non metallic foreign
material present in the cast
metal
 Reason:
 Faulty gating
 Faulty Pouring
 Remedies:
 Modify gating system
 Improve pouring to
minimise turbulence
6.HOT TEAR / HOT CRACKS
/PULLS
 Description: Cracks developed in the
interior/exterior of the cast
 Reason:
 Low strength of metal after solidification ;
unable to oppose solid shrinkage.
 Faulty design; exceptionally high stress at
certain points
 Remedies:
 Modify design
 7.METAL PENETRATION
 Description: Occurs as a rough
& uneven external surface on
the casting
 Reason:
 Large grain sized sand used
 Moulding sand is of low strength
 Pouring temperature of metal is
too high
 Remedies:
 Use sand having finer grains
 Suitably adjust the pouring
temperature
 8.Wrapage
 Description: Undesirable deformation in the casting,
occurring during or after solidification
 Reason: Poor design; Non uniform wall thickness
 Remedies: Modify casting design
 RISER

 A passage made in the

Cope through which
the molten metal rises
after the mould is filled
up.
 Advantage:
1. During pouring, allows
air, steam & gases to
go out of the mould.
2. Observing the riser
TYPES OF RISERS