MOTIVATION

Motivation THEORIES
1. Reinforcement theory
2. Expectancy theory
3. Goal-setting theory
4. Social cognition theory
5. Cognitive evaluation theory
REINFORCEMENT THEORY

• The behaviour that results in a pleasurable outcome is likely

to be repeated whereas behaviour that results in an
unpleasant outcome is unlikely to be repeated.

• Reinforcement based approach focuses on why some

behaviour are maintained and changed over time
 REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Reinforcement theory makes four essential points about the
association between motivation, effort and rewards:

1 - Rewards do reinforce performance.

2 - To reinforce desired behaviour, rewards must follow

immediately after the behaviour.

3 - Behaviour that is not rewarded will be discontinued

4 - Withholding rewards (or reward increases) is a powerful means

of discouraging unwanted behaviour or misbehaviour.
• How does a manger can use reinforcement theory is a source
of motivation?
EXPECTANCY THEORY

• Expectancy theory is based on the assumption that work behaviour is

determined by individual expectations of the likely consequences of such
behaviour. It seeks to explain and predict worker motivation in terms of
anticipated actions and rewards.

• The theory explain that individuals can be motivated towards goals if they
believe that there is a positive relation between effort and performance, the
outcome of a favourable performance will result desirable reward, a reward
from performance will satisfy an important need and the outcome satisfies
their need enough to make the effort worthwhile
EXPECTANCY THEORY

In Vroom’s model, motivation depends on three cognitions:

1: ‘Valence’ (reward attractiveness) This is the value the

employee places on the potential outcome/reward: how much
do I really want this potential reward?
EXPECTANCY THEORY
2: ‘Instrumentality’ (perceived performance–reward linkage)
This is the degree to which the employee believes that
performing at the specified Level will produce a positive
outcome or reward. In common usage, instrumentality is also
referred to as the ‘line of sight’ between performance and
reward. This is partly related to the employee’s level of trust in
the organisation’s reward promise: if I achieve the required level
of performance, how likely am I to be rewarded positively for it?

3: ‘Expectancy’ (effort–performance linkage) This is the

employee’s perception of the probability that a given effort will
lead to a certain level of performance. In essence, this has to do
with the employee’s level of personal confidence about being
able to perform: can I achieve the required performance with the
skills and resources at my disposal?
EXPECTANCY THEORY
 GOAL-SETTING THEORY
As defined ,a goal ‘is a level of performance proficiency that
we wish to attain within a specified time period’.

Goal-setting theory contends that individuals are most highly

motivated When;

(1) They are set specific but challenging goals,

(2) They have strong commitment to these goals and,
(3) They have a high sense of self-efficacy regarding goal
achievement.
 GOAL-SETTING THEORY
It is based on the premises that;

(1) The more employees know about what is required of

them performance-wise, the stronger their identification with
the goals set ,

(2) The more precise and frequent the feedback on how well
they are going in meeting these requirements, the greater the
motivational effect will be.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY

In particular, the role of goal commitment, continuous feedback and

self-efficacy in sustaining motivational strength and, hence, goal-
directed effort.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
Goal-setting theory has several practical implications for effective
performance management:

 Clear and specific goals are more motivating than generalised

and imprecise statements to do with performance
requirements that simply exhort the employee to ‘do a good
job’.
 Difficult but attainable goals motivate more than those which
are easily attained.
 Feedback on task performance enhances motivational effect.
 For goals to produce higher performance, employees must
have the knowledge, skills, abilities, materials and equipment
(i.e. instrumentality’) to accomplish them and must believe
that they can accomplish the goals set (i.e. they must feel ‘self-
efficacy’).
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
 Goals must be accepted or ‘owned’ by the employee. One
way to achieve this goal commitment is to have
employees participate in goal selection, measurement
and interpretation.
 Self-regulation of performance (via participative goal-
setting and reflection on feedback) is a more effective
motivational approach than is the formula for reward and
punishment characteristic of reinforcement theory
behaviourism.
COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY
• The theory proposes that the introduction of extrinsic reward,
such as pay for work that was previously intrinsically
rewarding due to pleasure associated with the content of the
work itself tends to decrease overall motivation
• Historically motivation theorist generally assumed that
intrinsic motivator such as responsibility, achievement et were
independent of extrinsic motivator such as pay promotion etc.
• But cognitive evaluation theory suggests otherwise
• It argues that when extrinsic rewards are used by
organizations as pay for superior performance the intrinsic
rewards which are derived from individuals doing what they
like are reduced
Why would such an outcome
occur?
• The popular explanation is that the individual experiences a
loss of control over his or her own behavior so that the
previous intrinsic motivation diminishes.
social cognitive theory
Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory (social
learning theory; self-efficacy theory) which refers to an
individual’s belief that they are capable of performing a
task.
Four ways self efficacy can be increased:
1. Enactive mastery – if you’ve performed task in the past,
you can do it again
2. Vicarious modeling – you become more confident
because you see someone else do the task
3. Verbal persuasion – you become more confident
because someone convinces you that you have the
skills necessary to perform task
4. Arousal – if you get “psyched up” then you perform
better
Thanks you