A Brief History of Reading

Spoken language is a natural, biological form of human

communication that is over 6 million years old. Reading is an
invention that is only 6000 years old. There simply hasn't been
enough evolutionary time, yet, for the human physiology of
reading to be perfected.

Aristotle, the world's first psychologist, understood this

fundamental difference and relationship between spoken
language and written language.
Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, and written
words are the symbols of spoken words.

Over history, humans have found methods to represent their

spoken words with written symbols. The first writing - Sumerian
logographs from 4000 BC - were simply pictures of objects and
activities:
 In 2000 BC, the Phoenicians developed the first methods to
represent spoken language - an alphabet consisting entirely of
consonants:

SPKNWRDSRTHSYMBL
SFMNTLXPRNCNDWRT
TNWRDSRTHSYMBLSF
SPKNWRDS.

2000 BC--Phoenician alphabet contained consonants only.

In 1000 BC, the first major upgrade occurred in the technology of
representing language - the Greeks added vowels to the alphabet. This
is essentially the same alphabet we use today - and it is considered
one of humanity's greatest inventions.

SPOKENWORDSARETHES
YMBOLSOFMENTALEXPE
RIENCEANDWRITTENWO
RDSARETHESYMBOLSOF
SPOKENWORDS
1000 BC--the Greeks added vowels.
About 1000 years later, in 200 BC, the next major upgrade in
writing appeared: punctuation marks. Punctuation was first
observed in Alexandrian manuscripts of plays written by
Aristophanes.

SPOKENWORDSARETHES
YMBOLSOFMENTALEXPE
RIENCE,ANDWRITTENW
ORDSARETHESYMBOLSO
FSPOKENWORDS.
200 BC--Aristophanes' plays add punctuation.
Yet another 1000 years passed before the next improvement in
text, namely the invention of lower case characters by Medieval
Scribes.

Spokenwordsarethesymbolsofm
entalexperience,andwrittenword
sarethesymbolsofspokenwords.
700 AD--lower case
About 1000 years ago, in 900 AD, the last major upgrade in text
took place: the insertion of spaces between words. Also
developed by Medieval Scribes, this invention made it possible,
for the first time, for the vast majority of readers to be able to
read silently. Prior to this, most readers had to read out loud in
order to be able to read at all. The few who could read text
silently without these spaces between the words, like Julius
Caesar and St. Ambrose, were viewed as so extraordinary that
this ability is specifically recorded in historical records.

Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, and

written words are the symbols of spoken words.
900 AD--spaces between words.

For the past 1000 years, there has been essentially no change in
the formatting of text, the technology of spatially symbolizing
natural spoken language, whether one considers the
handwritten scripts of 900 AD, the Gutenberg Bible of 1500 AD,
or the EBook of 2000 AD.
The great reading opportunity of electronic text is that digital
content can be read by a machine. This machine readability can be
used to analyze text for syntactic structure, grammatical attributes,
word difficulty, pronunciation attributes, and the like, and the
results of this analysis can then be used to give shape to the
presentation of text, using patterns that enable the eye and the
mind to work together to build meaning for the reader. The LiveInk
method of attribute extraction and varied presentation of text can
be automatically performed, and finally transforms Aristotle's
sentence into this:

Spoken words
are the symbols
of mental experience,
and written words
are the symbols
of spoken words.
 Previewing
Previewing is a strategy that readers use to recall prior
knowledge and set a purpose for reading. It calls for readers to
skim a text before reading, looking for various features and
information that will help as they return to read it in detail later.

Why Use It

According to research, previewing a text can improve

comprehension (Graves, Cooke, & LaBerge, 1983, cited in Paris
et al., 1991).
Previewing a text helps readers prepare for what they are about
to read and set a purpose for reading.The genre determines the
reader’s methods for previewing:
Readers preview nonfiction to find out what they know about
the subject and what they want to find out. It also helps them
understand how an author has organized information.
Readers preview biography to determine something about the
person in the biography, the time period, and some possible
places and events in the life of the person.
Readers preview fiction to determine characters, setting, and
plot. They also preview to make predictions about story’s
problems and solutions.
When To Use It
Previewing is a strategy readers use before and during reading.

How To Use It
When readers preview a text before they read, they first ask
themselves whether the text is fiction or nonfiction.
If the text is fiction or biography, readers look at the title,
chapter headings, introductory notes, and illustrations for a
better understanding of the content and possible settings or
events.
If the text is nonfiction, readers look at text features and
illustrations (and their captions) to determine subject matter
and to recall prior knowledge, to decide what they know about
the subject. Previewing also helps readers figure out what they
don’t know and what they want to find out.
Reading is a physiological process
As your eyes read what on the paper, the brain has to make
an action on what to do with text written on it. In similar
perspective Barton (2013) defined reading as a physiological
process as your brain needs to react to what is on the page. It is
the thinking and alertness of the brain that is used to process
the words that are on a page or screen when you read. Whilst
you are alert and thinking, the brain is working at full capacity,
but even at rest it is performing physiological functions to keep
us alive and keep us breathing. Our body is constantly
performing physiological tasks, most of the time we are not
aware of the reactions within our body that our brain and
nervous system are causing.
 As the eyes see the printed word or the images, the Light
patterns from the printed symbols hit the foveal areas or
closely-packed sensory cells of the retina. Then, Chemical
change is induced that create patterns of nerve currents into the
optic nerve fiber, quickly currents travel to the center of the
mid- brain and lastly, using the currents, the cerebral cortex
interprets the symbols.
What are the different eye movements involved in reading?

a. Fixation
• Eyes stopping or getting fixated on the word or words
• The duration of fixation is the length of time the eyes have to pause.

b. Inter-fixation
• Eyes moving from stopping point to the other

c. Return Sweeps
• Eyes swinging back from the end line to the beginning of the next line
• d. Saccades
• • Short quick hop and jump movements done especially by
literate people to move ahead on a line of print
•
• e. Regressions
• · Backward right-to-left movement in case there is a need to
double check what is being read
Reading is the complex cognitive
process
Decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a form of language
processing.
Success in this process is measured as reading comprehension. Reading is
a means for language acquisition, communication, and sharing information
and ideas. The symbols are typically visual (written or printed) but may be
tactile (Braille). Like all languages, it is a complex interaction between text
and reader, shaped by prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and the
language community—which is culturally and socially situated. Readers
use a variety of reading strategies to decode (to translate symbols into
sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehend. Readers
may use context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers
integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of
knowledge or schema.
Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as
music notation or pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of
symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations or tactile signals.
 Communication Process
Reading may refer as communication process because for
example if you are reading a book, you well read all the author’s
knowledge, opinion, messages or anything he/she wrote from
that book. it means there is a transfer of message from the
author to the one who read the book (you) and when you react
upon receiving the message, then that what we called
communication process. That’s why reading may refer as
communication process.

Reading is a receptive action which is one of the four basic skills

of communicating in a language. It is reciprocally associated with
writing. Writing and reading are parallel to speaking and
listening. However, writing and reading are the tangible skills of
communication whereas speaking and listening are the
intangible skills of communication.
Every literate person can write and read at least in one
language. Basically, reading is the ability to look at and
understand the meaning of the written words, letters, or
symbols. But reading as a skill means much more than that.
Reading is a complex process of identifying/recognizing written
signs, comprehending the signs, and constructing a meaning of
the signs. Reading skill develops when someone takes less time
to comprehend the signs and constructs meaning accurately.
Different people may read a text differently and make different
meanings. However, there is always something universally
comprehensive in a text and a person with good reading skill
comprehends that easily.
 Psychological Appeal to
Reading
When you read your mind can trick you into thinking that you
are actually doing or taking part in what you are reading.
This is a main reason why reading is so enjoyable.
Reading and Writing Have a connection through Psychology!
How psychology is integrated in reading and writing.
When you read something that your brain already knows you
don't really re-read it, you fill in the blanks, this is called
Prediction.Once you have learned about a certain subject and
you read about it, you seem to already know what an article is
going to say before you read it.It's called redundancy and it is
your prior knowledge.
A guide to adventurefor young teens.
Your mind is intricately formed to like certain things.Books that
contain what you enjoy in them are more likely to be read by
you.When you read something you enjoy, your mind tricks you
into thinking that you are in the story.
Another Cool Thing Your Mind Does:
Psycholinguistic Concepts of Prediction and Redundancy
Hopefully I have helped you learn more about what your mind
does when you engage a piece of literature.
Reading and writing are connected in so many more ways, but I
found that using your mind to take you any where through
literature is the most interesting.
Psychological Aspect of Reading and Writing
Developmental reading
In 1983, the Development of Education, Culture and Sports
(DECS) required students enrolled in Bachelor of Elementary
Education (BEED) to take up 3-unit course in Developmental
Reading and another 3-unit course for Teaching Strategies in
Communication Arts, Focus on Reading. Then in 1986, the
agency required students enrolled in Secondary Education to
take up Developmental Reading and Research and Study Skills.
Certainly, these steps were innovations that responded and
continues to respond to the great need for greater proficiency
among students-teacher in reading. Future teachers will also be
able to apply effective strategies in developing reading skills
among their students. There is a need therefore to have a clear
and proper knowledge of what development reading is.
Basic concepts:

There is agreement that reading as a process of development

involves a program for acquiring and developing reading
concepts and skills. This is based on the perception that the
periods or stages in developing reading skills coincide with the
developmental stages of individual growth. Needless to say,
progress in reading happens gradually and progressively.

There are other ideas contributed by reading experts and these

are:

Development proceeds sequentially in an upward movement

starting with the simplest to increasing levels of complexity.
There are levels of difficulties in reading skills acquisition.
 Obstacles in Reading
Physical

 Malfunction of the visual and auditory faculties.

In particular, eye defects such as short/farsightedness, speech

impedements, etc.

Physical discomfort among students such as

headaches,stomach ache,hunger,thirst etc.
 Obstacles in Reading
Psychological :

Child’s lack of self-confidence, feelings on rejection and other

negative personality traits ( shyness, being withdrawn, poor
rapport with others, conflict with parents and peers, etc.)

Teacher’s personality factor such as lack of

competence,emotional immaturity, lack of social sence, etc.

General atmosphere at home and school, including the

attitude among the parents in guiding their children’s progress
in school.
 Obstacles in Reading

Environmental :

 Conditions at home,including conditions of poor room

lightning, ventilation, seating arrangement, etc.
 Obstacles in Reading
Socioeconomic

Low economic status (poverty) of children of poor families.

Sensationalism and retrogressive as fostered by

commercialism in mass media.

Policies and programs of government and of schools on the

development reading program.
What is selective reading?
Good man (1998) that “Reading is a selective process involving
partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the
perceptual impute on the basis of the reader's perception”.

 Reading to get an answer

 Reading only the important parts
 Reading for a purpose
 Reading for step by step
How to start?
You have to know your purpose..
Why are you reading this?
It is for tutorial, or just a topic for discussion?
What info are you looking for?

Why do we need to learn selective reading?

“Technical” reading issues
 Learning in English, which may be a second language for
many.
 Puzzling over unfamiliar words and jargon.
 Repeatedly going back over what has just been read to check
understanding.
 Reading out aloud or under the breath.
Selective reading is a learned
strategy that should be taught at
a young age.
A tool for comprehension strategic, selective, and purposeful
 Scanning
Involves skipping unimportant words like “the” and identifying
the keywords.
skimming
Use skimming to locate a particular point.
Read selectively within text:
• BE AN ACTIVE READER: Choose carefully what you will read
closely,
• SKIM THE TEXT whenever the author is off topic, providing
supporting background or offering repetitious detail.
• BE BOLD: trust your instinct in regard t what material is
important and what is filler.
BECOME A MORE SELECTIVE
READER
You are not expected to read from code to cover.
You are meant to read with a particular learning purpose in mind
If you are clear about your purpose for reading and what it is you
Want from a text before you start reading, you can then select
The most appropriate source and concentrate on the part of this
that will give you the infromation you seek.
Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension -- is the level of understanding of a
text/message. This understanding comes from the interaction
between the words that are written, and how they trigger
knowledge outside the text/message. Comprehension is a
"creative, multifaceted process" dependent upon four language
skills: phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.There are 7
essential skills for reading comprehension: Decoding, Fluency,
Vocabulary, Sentence Construction and Cohesion, Reasoning
and background knowledge, and Working memory and
attention.
1. Decoding
Decoding is a vital step in the reading process. Kids use this skill to sound
out words they’ve heard before but haven’t seen written out. The ability
to do that is the foundation for other reading skills.

Decoding relies on an early language skill called phonemic awareness.

(This skill is part of an even broader skill called phonological awareness.)
Phonemic awareness lets kids hear individual sounds in words (known as
phonemes). It also allows them to “play” with sounds at the word and
syllable level.

Decoding also relies on connecting individual sounds to letters. For

instance, to read the word sun, kids must know that the letter s makes the
/s/ sound. Grasping the connection between a letter (or group of letters)
and the sounds they typically make is an important step toward “sounding
out” words.

What can help: Most kids pick up the broad skill of phonological
awareness naturally, by being exposed to books, songs, and rhymes. But
some kids don’t. In fact, one of the early signs of reading difficulties is
trouble with rhyming, counting syllables, or identifying the first sound in a
word.
2. Fluency
To read fluently, kids need to instantly recognize words, including ones they can’t
sound out. Fluency speeds up the rate at which they can read and understand text.
It’s also important when kids encounter irregular words, like of and the, which can’t
be sounded out.

Sounding out or decoding every word can take a lot of effort. Word recognition is
the ability to recognize whole words instantly by sight, without sounding them out.
When kids can read quickly and without making too many errors, they are “fluent”
readers.
Fluent readers read smoothly at a good pace. They group words together to help
with meaning, and they use the proper tone in their voice when reading aloud.
Reading fluency is essential for good reading comprehension.
What can help: Word recognition can be a big obstacle for struggling readers.
Average readers need to see a word four to 14 times before it becomes a “sight
word” they automatically recognize. Kids with dyslexia, for instance, may need to
see it up to 40 times.
Lots of kids struggle with reading fluency. As with other reading skills, kids need
lots of specific instruction and practice to improve word recognition.
The main way to help build this skill is through practice reading books. It’s
important to pick out books that are at the right level of difficulty for kids.
3. Vocabulary
To understand what you’re reading, you need to understand most of
the words in the text. Having a strong vocabulary is a key component
of reading comprehension. Students can learn vocabulary through
instruction. But they typically learn the meaning of words through
everyday experience and also by reading.

What can help: The more words kids are exposed to, the richer their
vocabulary becomes. You can help build your child’s vocabulary by
having frequent conversations on a variety of topics. Try to include
new words and ideas. Telling jokes and playing word games is a fun
way to build this skill.

Reading together every day also helps improve vocabulary. When

reading aloud, stop at new words and define them. But also encourage
your child to read alone. Even without hearing a definition of a new
word, your child can use context to help figure it out.
4. Sentence Construction and Cohesion
Understanding how sentences are built might seem like a
writing skill. So might connecting ideas within and between
sentences, which is called cohesion. But these skills are
important for reading comprehension as well.

Knowing how ideas link up at the sentence level helps kids get
meaning from passages and entire texts. It also leads to
something called coherence, or the ability to connect ideas to
other ideas in an overall piece of writing.

What can help: Explicit instruction can teach kids the basics of
sentence construction. For example, teachers can work with
students on connecting two or more thoughts, through both
writing and reading.
5. Reasoning and Background Knowledge
Most readers relate what they’ve read to what they know. So it’s
important for kids to have background or prior knowledge about
the world when they read. They also need to be able to “read
between the lines” and pull out meaning even when it’s not
literally spelled out.

Take this example: A child is reading a story about a poor family

in the 1930s. Having knowledge about the Great Depression can
provide insight into what’s happening in the story. The child can
use that background knowledge to make inferences and draw
conclusions.

What can help: Your child can build knowledge through reading,
conversations, movies and TV shows, and art. Life experience
and hands-on activities also build knowledge.
6. Working Memory and Attention
These two skills are both part of a group of abilities known as executive
function. They’re different but closely related.

When kids read, attention allows them to take in information from the
text. Working memory allows them to hold on to that information and use
it to gain meaning and build knowledge from what they’re reading.

The ability to self-monitor while reading is also tied to that. Kids need to
be able to recognize when they don’t understand something. Then they
need to stop, go back, and re-read to clear up any confusion they may
have.

What can help: There are many ways you can help improve your child’s
working memory. Skillbuilders don’t have to feel like work, either. There
are a number of games and everyday activities that can build working
memory without kids even knowing it.

To help increase your child’s attention, look for reading material that’s
interesting or motivating. For example, some kids may like graphic novels.
Encourage your child to stop and re-read when something isn’t clear. And
demonstrate how you “think aloud” when you read to make sure what
you’re reading makes sense.
Methods and Techniques:
There are three methods that we will look at:

 Mapping
 KWL Charts
 SQ3R
How do you Map?
• While you are previewing, use your map or diagram to show
the central or main idea.
• draw lines away from the central idea on which to write down
your secondary ideas or supporting ideas.
• also allow for Key ideas or Terms which should be found in the
chapter.
 Mapping
• Mapping the chapter as you preview it provides a visual guide
to how different chapter ideas fit together.
• 75% of students are visual learners therefore putting content
in a more graphic style can improve comprehension for many
readers.
Examples of Reading Maps

Main or Central Idea

Secondary Idea Secondary Idea Secondary Idea

 KWL Charts

• The purpose of KWL is figure out what you know, what you want to
learn, and ultimately what you have learned.

K = What do you KNOW about the subject or chapter? (prior

knowledge)
W= What do you WANT to know?
L= What have you LEARNED about the subject or chapter?
How Do I Make A KWL Chart?

 To make a KWL Chart you will need to either draw or create a

chart with three columns.
 one column is for the K, one for the W, and one for the L.
 In the K column list what you already know in the W column
list what you want to know, and in the L column list what you
have LEARNED.
Example of a KWL Chart :
 SQ3R

The SQ3R Method is very similar both of the previously

mentioned methods.

The purpose of this method is to encourage you to preview , look

at the questions that go along with your chapter,and then to
focus on the detailed reading of your chapter.
 Reading rate
Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age
and measured with different tests in English, French and German
Many studies show that increasing reading speed improves
comprehension.[18] Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult
levels. The table to the right shows how reading-rate varies with
age,[19] regardless of the period (1965 to 2005) and the language
(English, French, German). The Taylor values probably are higher, for
disregarding students who failed the comprehension test. The reading
test by the French psychologist Pierre Lefavrais ("L'alouette", published
in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a penalty for errors, and could,
therefore, not be a rate greater than 150 wpm. According to Carver
(1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the school
years. On average, from grade 2 to college, reading rate increases 14
standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-
length word is defined as six characters in text, including punctuation
and spaces).[20] Note that the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl
(German) are based on texts of increasing difficulty; other data were
obtained when all age groups were reading the same text.
Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than
100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100–200
wpm); reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm); and
skimming (400–700 wpm). Reading for comprehension is the
essence of the daily reading of most people. Skimming is for
superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of
comprehension (below 50%).

Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes

reading flexibly, slowing when concepts are closely presented
and when the material is new, and increasing when the material
is familiar and of thin concept. Speed reading courses and books
often encourage the reader to continually accelerate;
comprehension tests lead the reader to believe his or her
comprehension is continually improving; yet, competence-in-
reading requires knowing that skimming is dangerous, as a
default habit.[citation needed]
Scientific studies have demonstrated that reading—defined here
as capturing and decoding all the words on every page—faster
than 900 wpm is not feasible given the limits set by the anatomy
of the eye.[21]

Reading speed has been used as a measure in research to

determine the effect of interventions on human vision. A
Cochrane Systematic Review used reading speed in words per
minute as the primary outcome in comparing different reading
aids for adults with low vision.