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CHI-SQUARE
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CHI-SQUARE (x²)
 One of the most frequently used inference
tests for analyzing nominal data as a
nonparametric test.
 It is appropriate for analyzing frequency data
dealing with one or two variables.
 Difference between expected frequencies and
observed frequencies.
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Formula

x²obt = Σ( f - f )²
o e

f e
z  Chi-square essentially measures the difference between
the observed frequency and the expected frequency for
each of the cells in a one-way or two way table.

 x² - measure of how different the observed

frequencies are from the expected frequencies.

 ( f ) - Observed frequency in the sample

o

( f) e – Expected frequency under the assumption

sampling is random from the null-hypothesis
population.
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SINGLE VARIABLE EXPERIMENT

 The data are presented in a one-way table

and the various expected frequency values
are determined on an a priori basis.
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 Null hypothesis

 States that there is no relationship that the

two variables are independent.
 Alternative hypothesis

 States that the two variables are related.

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Example:
SINGLE VARIABLE EXPERIMENT
 Suppose you are interested in determining whether there is a
difference among beer drinkers living in the Puget Sound area in
their preference for different brands of light beer. You decide to
conduct an experiment in which you randomly sample 150 beer
drinkers and let them taste the three leading brands
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The null hypothesis for this experiment states that there
is no difference in preference
among the brands in the population.

 To calculate the value of x²obt for the present

experiment, we must determine f for each cell. The

e

values of f are given in the table. If the null

o

hypothesis is true, then the proportion of beer

drinkers in the population that prefers brand A is
equal to the proportion that prefers brand B, which in
turn is equal to the proportion that prefers brand C.
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Hence, in the sample to
prefer brand A, one-third to prefer brand B, and
one-third to prefer brand C.
Since there are 150 subjects in the sample, f for
e

each cell
1/3(150)= 50.
 CRITICAL VALUE TABLE

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TEST INDEPENDENCE BETWEEN TWO
VARIABLES

 The frequency data are presented in a contingency table, and

we are interested in determining whether there is a relationship
between the two variables. Determining whether two categorical
variables are independent or related.
 Contingency Table is a two-way table showing the contingency
between two variables where the variables have been classified
into mutually exclusive categories and the cell entries are
frequencies.
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Example:

 Suppose a bill that proposes to lower the legal age for drinking
to eighteen is pending before the state legislature. A political
scientist living in the state is interested in determining whether
there is a relationship between political affiliation and attitude
toward the bill. A random sample of 200 registered Republicans
and 200 registered Democrats is sent letters explaining the
scientist’s interest and asking the recipients whether they are in
favor of the bill, are undecided, or are against the bill. Strict
confidentiality is assured. A self-addressed envelope is included
to facilitate responding.
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 The null hypothesis states that there is no contingency between

the variables in the population. For this example, H0 states that,
in the population, attitude toward the bill and political affiliation
are independent.
 If this is true, then both the Republicans and Democrats in the
population should have the same proportion of individuals “for,”
“undecided,” and “against” the bill.
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 Suppose that, if H is true, the proportion of

0

Republicans in the population against the bill

equals 0.50. To find f for that cell, all we
e

would have to do is multiply 0.50 by the

number of Republicans in the sample. Thus,
for the “Republican-against” cell,
 f =0.50(200) 100.
e
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ASSUMPTION:

1.) There is independence between each observation

recorded in the contingency table.
2.) The sample size must be large enough that the expected
frequency in each cell is at least 5 for tables where r or c is greater
than 2.
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 Although X² is used frequently when the data are only of

nominal scaling, it is not limited to nominal data. Chi-square can
be used with ordinal, interval, and ratio data. However,
regardless of the actual scaling, the data must be reduced to
mutually exclusive categories and appropriate frequencies
before X² can be employed.
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ANALYZING THE
CHI-SQUARE IN
SPSS