PHIL 131

Karanfil Soyhun
 Karanfil Soyhun
 ksoyhun@gmail.com
 359 6558
 Room: John Freely Building 506
 Text Book
 First 3 chapters of D. Kalish, R. Montegue. Logic Techniques of
Formal Reasoning. 2nd ed. San Diego. 1980
 You may find a copy of it at the Hisar Photocopier, behind
the Hisarustu bus stop, and at Bookstore Photocopier.
Exams
 4 exams, no final.
 NOT negotiable. If you miss an exam, you will have to apply
to Mazeret Committee.
 Teach what you want students to learn from the subject, and
test how well they learned that material.
 No surprises.
 Exam questions are exactly like what I said they will be.the
book, and the study guides are all you need for a good
grade.
Assesment
 1st Exam October 16th (10%)

 2nd Exam November 13th(20%)

 3rd Exam December 4th (20%)

 FINAL (50%)
 Overview of the Class
 Week 1 -3
 We will study a simple sentential calculus, called “the
language of conditionals and negation”, or shortened to CN
by our book. This will allow us to start formulating concepts
like validity, syntax, and semantics. We will provide
translations of natural language arguments to CN, and show
whether they are valid or not. You will find my slides, as well
as a study guide in Moodle. Best way to study for the first
exam is todo all the examples of the book.You really do not
need anything else.
 1st Exam October 16th (10%)
Week 4- 6
 We will study a more complex version of sentential calculus,
SN. This will allow us to get a better understanding of
validity, syntax, and semantics. Again we will provide
translations of natural language arguments to CN, and show
whether they are valid or not. However, things get more
complicated with chapter 2. SN allows us to capture more of
the everyday arguments than CN. We will also learn the
method for proving when invalidty.
 Again,
 You will find my slides, as well as a study guide in Moodle.
Best way to study for the first exam is todo all the examples
of the book.You really do not need anything else.
 2nd Exam November 13th(20%)
 Week 7, 8
 We will start with the propositional calculus, PC. Since this
is a major change from the previous 2 chapters, we will have
an initial introduction for PC, learn to formulate
grammatical sentences, and translation, then have an exam on
these topics.

 3rd Exam December 4th (20%)

 Weeks 9-12
 We will expand our study of the propositional calculus, PC.
We will continue to study more complex translations, but
also develop methods to prove validity of arguments in PC.
As well as developing methods for invalidity proofs. The last
exam will include all of the chapter 3. As usual, you will find
both the slides, and a study guide for the exam in Moodle.
CHAPTER 1
 Rational arguments
Legitimate conclusions from given information.
Inference –Arguments

 This is common to
 Law, Science, Social sciences.
Inferences, arguments…
 Certain methods are good ones.

 Logic gives us some set of these.

 i.e. which arguments are good ones to use.

Arguments are NOT
 Disputes
 nor ways of convincing others, influencing their feelings….
(Rhetoric)
Arguments
 Set of declarative sentences
 Arranged in specific ways

 Premises

 Conclusions ஃ
Declarative sentences
 Possess truth values either true or false,
The book is a difficult one.

 Unlike Questions or orders.

Bring the book, please.
Or
How many books are there?
Do not Confuse
 Having a truth value
 Knowing that truth value

I have even number of hairs on my head.

The flying pig argument

1. If pigs fly, the moon is made up of green cheese.

2. Pigs fly
3. ஃ The moon is made up of green cheese
Was the flying pig argument a good one?

YES,
 for the logician,

Not CONVINCING for anyone.

2 features of good arguments
 Validity
 The conclusion should follow from the premises

 Soundness
 VALID + TRUE premises
Validity
 It is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion
to be false.
 Logic is concerned with validity, not with the truth of the
premises.
 PஃP
Wet Streets
1. If it is raining then the streets are wet.
2. It is raining.
3. ஃ The streets are wet.
Rain?
1. If it is raining then the streets are wet.
2. The streets are wet.
3. ஃ It is raining.
Difference?

P1. If it is raining then the streets are wet.

P2. It is raining.
ஃThe streets are wet.

P1. If it is raining then the streets are wet.

P2. The streets are wet.
ஃ It is raining.
Benefits
 Mathematics
 AI
 Linguistics-semantics
 Philosophy
 Psychology
 How people reason vs. how they should
(cognitive psychology)
Practical Benefits
 GRE
 Math phobia
 Everyday reasoning
 CHAPTER 1

The Logic of CN
New language

 Vocabulary,

 Grammar
Vocabulary

 Sentence letters: P-Z

 Connectives: → ~

 Punctuation: ( )
Grammar Rules for SS

1. Any sentence letter by itself is a SS. E.g. P

2. If α is a SS, so is ~ α

3. If α and β are SS, so is (α → β)

SS?
Which rules?
 ~~P
 ~ (P)
 (P)
 ~(P → Q)
 ~(P → E)
 ~(P → Q))
 ~(~S → Q)
Informal Rules

 You may drop the outermost parenthesis

 You may use [ ]

Are the following SS of CN? If not
correct them.

 ((~T → Q) → R)) → Z
 ~~ ~ [(~S → Q) → R]
 [[~S → Q ] → J]
 [(~S → p) → R]
 [(~W → Q) → Y] → ~V
 T → ~(S → Q) → R
 Homework 1

P 7. all 6 questions.
TREES

(P → Q)

P Q
~P

P
 (P → Q) → ~R

(P → Q) ~R

P Q R
 (P → Q) → ~K

(P → Q) ~R

P Q K
 ((~S → Q) → R)
 (~S → Q) → R
 [~S → Q ] → R
 [(~S → Q) → R]
 But not
 [(~S → Q) → R
 [~S → Q) → R]
Quiz 1

((~S → Q) → R)
(~S → Q) → R
[~S → Q ] → R
[(~S → Q) → R]
But not
[(~S → Q) → R
[~S → Q) → R]
Truth Values
 ~P

P ~P
T F
F T
Truth Values
 (P → Q) or informally P → Q
 (P → Q) is true if and only if
 P is false,
 Q is true,
 P is true and Q is true.

 (P → Q) is false
 P is true and Q is false.
P Q (P → Q)
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Negation ~
 It is not the case that Einstein is stupid.
 Einstein isn’t stupid.
 Einstein fails to be stupid.
 P: Einstein is stupid.
 ~P
Variations of ~
 It is not the case that
 n’t
 Not
 Fails
 Prefixes: im, un, a, in
 Immoral, unbearable, inflexible…
Standard Form of the Conditional
 If Tego is a dog, then he is a mammal.
 P:Tego is a dog Q:Tego is a mammal

 P→Q
 P is the Antecedent-
 the sufficient condition
 Q is the Consequent-
 the necessary condition.
Variations of the conditional →
 Assuming that
 Provided that
 Given that
 On the condition that

 All work as IF, and what follows them is your antecedent.

 Given that Tego is a dog, he is a mammal.
 Tego is a mammal, given that Tego is a dog.

 (P→ Q)
 Provided that Tego is a dog, he is a mammal.

 Tego is a mammal, provided that Tego is a dog.

 i.e. (P→ Q)
ONLY IF
 Only if signals the consequent, or the necessary condition.

 Tego is a dog, only if he is a mammal.

 (P→ Q)
Examples
 If Joe is happy, then Barry is happy.
 P Joe is happy Q Barry is happy
 (P→ Q)
 It isn’t the case that if Joe is happy, then Barry is happy.

 ~ (P→ Q)

 BUT NOT (~P→ Q) or (P→ ~ Q)

 Which parentheses can you omit?

 Ahmet will go to the party if Mary will, provided that Jane
won’t.
 P: Ahmet will go to the party
 Q: Mary will go to the party
 R: Jane will go to the party

 Notice! R cannot be Jane won’t go to the party

 ,
Ahmet will go to the party if Mary will provided that Jane
won’t.

,
P if Q provided that Jane won’t.
 Ahmet will go to the party if Mary will ,
 (P→ Q)
 Or (Q→ P)

provided that Jane won’t.

 ~S → (Q→ P)
 ~(S → (Q→ P))
Only if
 Only if taxes are increased will Congress consider
establishing an endorsement for logicians.

 P: taxes are increased

 Q: Congress will consider establishing an endorsement for
logicians.

 (Q→ P)
Exercises p.12-13
11. If Alfred will pass if he concentrates, then logic is
enjoyable.
Q: Alfred will pass R: Alfred concentrates. P: logic is enjoyable.
Antecedent? Main connective?
If Q if R, then P.
If Alfred will pass if he concentrates (R→ Q) → P

If Alfred will pass Q→ (R → P)

HOMEWORK 2

Q # 12, 13, 16, 17

14

14. It is not the case that if Alfred will secure employment

provided that logic is enjoyable, then he will marry only if he
concentrates.
It is not the case that if T provided that P, then U only if R.
It is not the case that if T provided that P, then U only if R.

T provided that P (P → T)
U only if R (U → R)

~((P → T) → (U → R))
15. Alfred will pass only if he concentrates provided that
the text is unreadable.

Q only if R provided that ~S

Q → (~S →R)

~S → (Q →R)
We finished

 Symbolization

 Grammar for Symbolic Sentences

Our initial starting point was VALIDITY

DERIVATIONS

Inference Rules

Derivation Rules
Primitive Sentential Inference Rules

 Modus Ponens (MP)  ModusTollens (MT)

 Φ→Ψ  Φ→Ψ
Φ  ~Ψ
 Ψ  ~Φ
 Double Negation (DN)  Double Negation (DN)
 Φ  ~~ Φ
 ~~ Φ  Φ
 Repetition (R)
 Φ
 Φ
The flying pig argument
1. If (pigs fly), (the moon is made up of green cheese).
2. Pigs fly (P)
3. The moon is made up of green cheese (Q)
P→Q
P
Q MP
Let’s prove T
 PR 1. ~~S → T ·
 PR 2. S
 ஃT

 S PR 2.
 ~~ S DN PR2

~~S → T
~~ S DN PR2
T MP
How about?
 T → (P → (~R →S))
 ~T → Z
 ~Z
 P
 ~S
 R
Worse Yet!
 P→Q
 Q→R
 P→R
 Direct Derivation
1. Show Φ

 DD
Φ
Conditional Derivation

 ACD
Show Φ → Ψ
Φ

 CD
Ψ
EXAMPLES
 T→ ~~P · ~ T → (~ S→ U) · ~U ஃ ~P→ S

 T → (P → (~R →S)) · ~T → Z · ~Z · P · ~S ஃ R

NESTED
1. ~ T → U
2. U→ (P → S)
3. P → (~T →S)
FROM NL
 1. If Tego sees another dog, he hides his bone.
 If Tego does not see another dog, he plays with his bone.
 If Tego doesn’t hide his bone, he doesn’t play with his bone.
 Tego hides his bone.
Proof ?
 P→Q
 ~P → R
 ~Q → ~R
 Q

We can’t show this via DD, nor via CD.

SO ID

 Assume the conclusion is false,

if this leads to a contradiction
ANY CONTRADICTION WILL DO
 your assumption must be false.
 Box and Cancel ID
Indirect Derivation

1. Show Φ
2. ~ Φ AID

ID l,n
~Ψ
EXAMPLES
 P →Q · ~Q ஃ ~P

 P → Q · ~P → R · ~Q → ~R ஃ Q
3 Kind of Lines

 Potentially live lines: Uncrossed “Show” lines

 Dead Lines: Boxed and cancelled.

 Live lines: Anything left + all your premises.

INFERENCE RULES APPLY ONLY TO LIVE LINES.

Mixed Proofs

 P →Q · ~Q ஃ ~P

 S→R · S→U · T→(U → ~R) ஃ S→~T

 P→Q · ~P→Q ஃ Q
THEOREMS
 Theorems are ss, we can prove without using any premise.

T1. P → P

T2. Q →(P →Q)

So Far

 We have 3 kinds of derivations.

 You may think these as both starts and ends of proofs.

 So, 3 kinds of starts:
 DD, you do nothing,
 ID assume ~ Φ,
 CD assume Φ,
 3 kinds of endings.
 DD, find Φ,
 ID , find a contradiction,
 CD find Ψ,
You are allowed to
 Finish any start with a contradiction. = ID

 Finish any start with the Φ, which was the show line. =DD

 IN other words, DD, and ID endings could be attached to

each other, or CD starts.

 However, a CD ending apply only to CD.

Indirect w/in a Conditional

 U →~S · P →S ஃ P →(T →~U)

Theorems

 Theorems are logical truths, meaning they are always true.

 A derivation of a theorem is called a proof.

 Notice that a theorem could be driven by any set of premises.

 R · Q ஃ P →P
 T13. ஃ (P →Q) → (~Q → ~P)
Contra-positive
Logically equivalent
The converse Q → P isn’t logically equivalent
 T9. ஃ (P → (P →Q)) → (P → Q)

 T23 ஃ ((P →Q) → P) → P Hint 5

Homework
Book Questions 22-26 ஃ ((P →Q) → P) → P Hint 5
USE Hint 5 for 22, 23, 25,26
22) (P →Q) → R  ~ R ஃ ~ Q
23) ((R →S) → P)  ~S → Q ஃ ~P → Q
24) (Q → ~~S ) → (~R → ~S) ஃ S → R
25) (S → P) → R  ~ R  (P →Q) → (T →R) ஃ ~T
26) (P →Q) → (T →R)  U → ~R  ~ (S →P) ஃ U → ~T
22 HINT 5
(P →Q) → R
~R
ஃ~Q
23 HINT 5
 ((R →S) → P)
 ~S → Q
 ஃ ~P → Q
24) (Q → ~~S ) → (~R → ~S) ஃ S → R
HINT 6
 (Q → ~~S ) → (~R → ~S)
 ஃ S→R
25) HINT 5&6
(S → P) → R ~ R  (P →Q) → (T →R) ஃ ~T
 (S → P) → R
 ~R

 ஃ ~T
 (P → Q) → (T → R)
U → ~R
~ (Y → P)
ஃ U → ~T
1. SHOW U → ~T
2. U
3. SHOW ~T
4. T
5. ~ (Y → P)
6. SHOW (Y → P)
7. Y
8. SHOW P
9. ~P
10. SHOW P → Q
11. P
12. ~P
13. T→ R
14. R
15. ~R
Primitive Sentential Inference Rules
 Modus Ponens (MP)  ModusTollens (MT)
Φ→Ψ Φ→Ψ
Φ ~Ψ
Ψ ~Φ
 Double Negation (DN)  Double Negation (DN)
 Φ  ~~ Φ
 ~~ Φ  Φ
 Repetition (R)
 Φ
 Φ
FALLACIES
 Affirming the consequent
Φ→Ψ If Joe studies, he’ll pass.
Ψ Joe passed
Φ Joe studied.

Φ→Ψ
Φ
Ψ
Fallacy of Denying the antecedent MT
Φ→Ψ If Joe studies, he’ll pass.
~Φ Joe didn’t study.
~Ψ Joe didn’t pass.

Denying the consequent MT

Φ→Ψ
~Ψ
~Φ
Problems of Assumptions
 All assumptions must appear immediately after a show line.

 Two kinds:
 AID ~of the show line
 ACD antecedent of the show line
If I can assume anything I want, I could
prove anything…
 P·QஃP→S
1. Show P → S

~P 2.
 AID
 Pr1
P
 2, 3 ID
Restrictions on Inferences
 Inferences apply only to LIVE lines.
 THIS MEANS
 Not to dead lines (i.e. boxed lines)
 Not to possibly live lines
(i.e. uncancelled SHOW lines)
If I can use inferences on possibly live
lines, I could prove anything…
 ஃP→S
1. Show P → S

P→S 2.
 R

 2 DD
Boxing and Cancelling
 Boxes ought not to have uncancelled show lines.
Study Guide 1
 Professors like logic provided that they are good go players.
 P: Professors like logic Q: Professors are good go players.
 Q→P
 Ahmed'll hang the clothes to dry, provided that he doesn’t
procrastinate.
 P: Ahmed will hang the clothes to dry. Q: Ahmed procrastinates.
 ~Q → P
 Ayse, and Ahmet will study for the exam, if they are not scared of
getting a bad grade.
 ~Q → P
 If God is not benevolent, then God does not exist provided
that being benevolent is perfection.
 ~P → ( ~Q → R)
 ~P → ( R →~Q )

 If God doesn’t exist, then my epistemic abilities are in doubt;

given that they are not created by a perfect being.
 (~P → Q ) → ~R
 ~R → (~P → Q )
 1. Determine whether the formulas below are formal
symbolic sentences of CN.
 a. (P → Q) → R b. R → ~S → T
 c. (R → S) → ~T d. ~~ ( V→ ~ (Z → K))

 2. When the formulas are not formal symbolic sentences of
CN, correct the problem.
 3. When the formulas are formal symbolic sentences of CN,
provide a tree analysis to show that they are.
Exercises
 29. If A studies, he receives good grades.
 If he does not study, then he enjoys college.
 If he does not receive good grades, he does not enjoy college.
 A receives good grades.

 IF P, Q
 IF ~P, S
 IF ~Q, ~S
Q
 (P→ Q) → Q ● S ▲ (Q→P) → P)
 T15 (~P→Q) → (~Q→ P)
 (P→Q) →P ▲ P
 T18 ~P → (P→ Q)
 T22 ~ (P →Q) → ~ Q
 T21
30#
1. (P → Q) → R
2. S → ~P
3. T
4. ~S → (T → Q)
 ▲R
31 # TRANSLATED
1. P →Q
2. R → ~S
3. S → P
4. Q → R
 ▲ S → ~T
 35# TRANSLATED
1. P→Q
2. P→ R
3. P→ S
4. T → (U → (~V → ~S))
5. Q→ T
6. R → (W → U)
7. V → ~W
8. W
 ▲~ P
STRATEGIC HINTS P. 27
1. To drive a conditional, use CD
2. Anything else, use ID (unless something is obvious)
3. Enter premises as lines, only after the assumption lines, if
you have them. (Nothing comes between)
4. Whenever something follows from MP or MT, enter them
as lines.
5. If you have ~ (Φ→ Ψ ), show Φ → Ψ , use this
contradiction to finish with ID.
6. If you have (Φ → Ψ ) → (Χ → Ψ ) as a live line or a
premise, show the antecedent (Φ → Ψ ) , and use MP.
Prove T11 by using MP only.
1. Show ~~ P → P
2. ~~ P ACD
3. Show P
4. ~P AID
5. Show ~~ P → ~~ P
6. ~~ P ACD
7. ~~ P 2.5 MP
Restricting Inference Rules
# 38
Prove T11 by using MP only.
1. Show ~~ P → P
2. ~~ P ACD
3. Show P
4. ~P AID
5. ~~ P
# 39
Prove T11 by using MP, and MT* only. No ID.
1. Show ~~ P → P
2. ~~ P ACD
3. Show ~ P → ~~~ P
4. ~P ACD
5. Show ~ ~ P → ~~ P
6. ~~ P

7. ~~ P 2,5 MP
8. P NO! THIS IS THE ID.
9. TRY AGAIN! HINT SHOW (~ ~~ ~ P → ~~ P)