Chapter 2

Basics of Wireless
Networks
 Learning objectives

 To understand wireless networks

 To know the access technologies

 To study problems such as interference, multi-path

propagation, path loss, battery life, etc.

 To illustrate issues like channel allocation, routing,

mobility, security, power management, etc.
 Wireless networks

Wired network
 Wire as communication medium
 High data rate
 No mobility

Wireless network
 Radio waves or air as a medium
 Less data rate
 Highly portable
 Mobility
 Wireless networks (Contd..)
 Provide inexpensive and rapid connection setup with Internet

 Restricted by distance

 Overlapping radio cells to provide connectivity

 Wireless network architecture

It consists of mobile hosts, fixed hosts, access stations, core

network to support mobility and switching.
Wireless network architecture (Contd..)
Mobile host
 Laptop, mobile phone, PDA, note book, etc. can move from one
place to another place while maintaining connection with
wireless network.

Fixed wireless host

 Cannot move but the medium is radio waves.
 Example: wireless web servers, printers, etc.

Access Network
 Consists of access stations which provide services to hosts reachable
from it.
 Wireless network architecture (Contd..)
Core Network

 Consist of active components provide data switching between access

stations, location and mobility services.

 Facilitate communication between mobile host to mobile host, mobile

host to wired node, fixed host to wired node, fixed host to mobile host,
etc.
Classification of wireless networks

 Wireless body area networks

 Wireless personal area networks
 Wireless local area networks
 Wireless metropolitan area networks and
 Wireless wide area networks such as GSM or

CDMA cellular networks

 Satellite networks and broadband access networks
Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)

 Max. signal range 2 meters

 Interconnecting respective devices within the surface of the body

 Uses broadband signaling scheme

 Frequency range below 6 GHz.

 Support heterogeneous multihop links

 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

 Max. signal range of 10 meters

 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

 Signal range is ≈30 meters indoors and ≈100 to 200 meters.

 Also called the Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi or IEEE 802.11)
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WLAN)
 Signal range of approximately 5 kms to 20 kms
 Often called Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMAX or IEEE 802.16)
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Wide Area Network (WWLAN)
 Employ on the network infrastructure of mobile operators.
 Cover wide area much wider than groups mentioned above.
 WI-MAX, UMTS, GPRS, CDPD, HSDPA
 Wireless switching technology
Packet switching
 Uses short bursts of information, uses channels for short periods of
time.
 Data is sent to and from the address address.
 Standard routing protocols.
 Its efficient by sharing spectrum and bandwidth

Virtual circuit
 Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) and
 Established dynamically on demand
 3 phases – circuit establishment, data transfer, circuit termination
 Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs)
 Only one mode i.e., data transfer
Wireless switching technology (Contd..)
Wireless communication problems

 Shared media
 Increased bit error rate

 Lower transmission power

 Scattering

 Reflection

 Diffraction

 Multipath propagation

 Fading

 Path loss

 RF signal interference
 Wireless communication problems

Shared media
 Wireless networks offers lower bandwidth
 Effective utilization of bandwidth is necessary

Increased bit error rate

 Due to obstacles between Tx and Rx
 Interference from neighbor nodes
 Frequent disconnections lead to data loss
 Annoying to voice and video clients
 Wireless communication problems
(Contd..)
Lower transmission power
 Mobile units powered by battery have scarce energy resources
 Limited transmission power to avoid interference
 Attenuation

Scattering
 Occurs when signal pass through the object whose dimension is
smaller than the wavelength.
 Occur due to rough surfaces, small objects, irregularities in the
channel. Need proper deployment strategies to reduce it.
 Wireless communication problems
(Contd..)
Reflection
 Occurs when electromagnetic wave strikes an object which has very
large dimension compare to the wave.Ex: walls, furniture, buildings,
etc.

Diffraction
 Occurs when radio path between Tx and Rx is obstructed by surfaces
that have sharp irregularities(edges) causing secondary waves, which
will be present in space and behind the obstacle.
 Wireless communication problems
(Contd..)
Multipath Propagation
 Caused by reflection and scattering
 Arrive at the Rx from different directions with varying delays
 Final signal is the summation of all signals
 Equalization and antenna diversity methods are used to overcome this
problem

Fading
 Drastically affect wireless communication system
 Can degrade BER performance, resulting in data loss
 Can occur as flat fading, frequency-selective fading
 Wireless communication problems
(Contd..)
Fading


 Drastically affect wireless communication system

 Can degrade BER performance, resulting in data loss
Types


 Flat fading
 Frequency-selective fading
 Flat fading
 fading remain same across all frequency components
 Frequency-selective fading
 Input signal is attenuated and phase shifted differently
 Wireless communication problems
(Contd..)
 Path loss
 Key parameter in designing wireless network
 Path loss
 Distance between Tx and Rx
 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

 RF Signal Interference
 Inward interference or co-channel interference

 Due harmonics of transmitting system, products with similar radio

frequencies
 Outward or adjacent channel interference
 Occurs when signal disrupts adjacent channels
 Wireless network reference model
 The TCP/IP architecture is functionally equivalent to the
OSI reference model.
 Wireless network reference model
(Contd..)
 Major similarities and differences between TCP/IP and the
OSI reference models are
 Both models have an application, a transport, and a
network/Internet layer
 The TCP/IP model does not have a session layer
 Lower layers connects the upper layers to the actual physical
network
 Wireless network reference model
(Contd..)
 Application layer functions
 This is the layer where end user applications such as remote login,
mail transfer, file transfer, network management, and web browsers
run

 Transport layer functions

 Its job is to provide reliable communication from application to
application (end-to-end) regardless of the lower-layer protocols and
communication links
 It encapsulates application layer data and deliver it to the network
layer
 Wireless network reference model
(Contd..)

 Data link layer functions

 This includes the logical link control (LLC)
sublayer and the MAC (media access control)
sublayer.
 It does segmenting the bit stream into frames,

error handling, flow control, and access control.

 MAC is responsible for accessing and sharing

of the wireless channel and reliable delivery by

using acknowledgments.
 Wireless network reference model
(Contd..)
 Physical layer functions
 This layer transports encapsulated data from the data link layer and
transmits it wirelessly to the distant network.
 The wireless features and functionality (modulation type, data rate,
and so on) take place at this layer.
 Wireless networking issues
 Traffic and resource allocation
 Flow control

 Error control

 Security and privacy

 Mobility

 Routing

 QoS management

 Radio access

 Channel allocation scheme

 Power management

 Pricing

 Subscriber control over service profile

 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)

Traffic and Resource allocation



 Each active connection is associated with traffic contract describing

traffic type and resource requirements for that connection.

 Slot scheduler assigns slots in the frame based on traffic contrct,

while efficiently using scarce bandwidth and minimum energy
consumption.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)
 Flow control
 Traffic type requirements such as delay and implementation
restrictions buffers limit the amount of buffer space available to a
connection.

 Due to dynamic nature of wireless networks such as mobility,

stream of data might be hindered while transit from source to
destination.

 Flow control mechanisms are required to prevent buffer overflow,

and traffic policing.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)

 Error control
 Erasures-easier to deal than errors, since the exact location of the
missing data is known.
 Embedding error control scheme with MAC layer would improve the
transmission quality.
 Different error control schemes for different connections with
requirements like packet loss rate, delay, etc.
 Some of the schemes are
 Forward Error Correction (FEC)
 ARQ
 Hybrid FEC/ARQ
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)

Security and privacy



 Protection of resource from loss, corruption, and misuse

 Eavesdroping can be done on datalink layer and IP layer

 Security of data on the wireless link and end-to-end

application
 Other problems are DoS, data integrity, tampering,
unauthorized access, and spoofing.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)
Mobility


 Service handover procedures are triggered when a node moves from

one area to another area. This happen often frequently when cell
radius is less.
 Link layer must feed higher layers information about which cells are
in coverage range.
 Reserve the bandwidth in neighboring cells before mobile node
reaches it, using pool of bandwidth that can be used for new
connections.
 If possible predict the movement of mobile nodes.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)

Routing


 Due node mobility finding an efficient routes in multihop wireless

networks without infrastructure is tedious task. Requires dynamic
routing protocols to take care of dynamic network configuration.
 Reachability- Reachable path would increase the reliability and
performance of the network otherwise lead to throughput degradation
and hampered service.
 Path minimization- involves minimization of delay, computations,
memory, overhead and increase in throughput.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)
QoS management


 Due to dynamic nature of wireless channels, and the mobility of

mobile nodes, agreed QoS levels cannot be able to sustain.

 Multimedia applications can show a more dynamic range of

acceptable performance parameters depending on the user’s quality
expectations, application usage modes, and application’s tolerance to
degradation.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)

 Radio access

 Frequency reuse-the distinct terminal use the same channel in

different cell with constraint on meeting a given threshold in
interference.

 FDMA or TDMA resource usage is based on the frequency reuse

option concept throughout the cell and microcell.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)
 Channel allocation scheme

 Two channel allocation schemes are

 Fixed channel allocation scheme

 Dynamic channel allocation scheme and

 Random allocation schemes

 Fixed channel allocation

 Interference constraint is ensured by frequency plan which

is independent of number and location of active module in

the channel, configured in medium or long terms.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)
Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)


 It behaves dynamically to actual radio link and traffic needs.

Decentralized control of channel assignment.
 Uncontrolled situation: selected local channel is very good with
mobile node but very poor with traffic source.
Mobile controlled assignment schemes are


 Regulated DCA:Threshold maintain useless handovers.

 Segregation:channels are assigned priorities, which change over
period of time with changes in system.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)

 Random allocation schemes

 Nodes randomly try to access the channel.
 Works well with minimum load ans as the load increases collisions
will increase.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)

 Power management
 Max. utility when they can be used anywhere and anytime but its
limitation is power supply.
 Wireless terminal- short continuous operation time.
 Base stations: infinite power supply, run centralized algorithms.
 Peer-to-peer wireless networks complicates medium access control
due absence of centralized authority.
 Wireless networking issues (Contd..)
Pricing


 Deals with pricing policies in wireless networks

 Charged based on QoS and the network situations

Degree of subscriber control over service profile



 Subscribers have their service profile and have control over them to
dynamically adapt to the media problems and network situations
 Wireless networking standards
Name Frequency band Bit rate Signal range Modulation Applications

Bluetooth 2, 4 GHz 1, 2 Mbit/S 10 m GMSK Peer-to-Peer

(IEEE 802.15) Device-to-Device

UWB 4, 8-10 GHz 480 Mbit/S 10 m OFDM Health monitoring

(IEEE 802.15.3)

Zigbee 2, 4 GHz 250 Kbit/S 10 m O-QPSK Control and

(IEEE 802.15.4) automation
Wireless networking standards (Contd..)
IEEE 802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbit/S 100 m- Outdoor OFDM, BPSK, Wireless LAN
30 m- Indoor QPSK, 16 QAM, 64
QAM

IEEE 802.11b 2, 4 GHz 11 Mbit/S 110 m- Outdoor BPSK, QPSK, 64 Wireless LAN
35 m- Indoor QAM, CCK

IEEE 802.11g 2, 4 GHz 54 Mbit/S 110 m- Outdoor OFDM, BPSK, Military applications
35 m- Indoor QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 Ex: High energy
QAM RADAR

IEEE 802.11 n 2, 4/5 GHz 150 Mbit/S 160 m- Outdoor MIMO Wireless LAN
70 m- Indoor

IEEE 802.16 10-66 GHz 134 Mbit/S 5 Kms QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 Wireless MAN
QAM

IEEE 802.16a 2-11 GHz 75 Mbit/S 10 Kms BPSK, QPSK, 16 Network access for
QAM, 64 QAM Line of Sight
applications

IEEE 802.16d 2-11 GHz 75 Mbit/S 8 Kms BPSK, QPSK, 16 Last mile
QAM, 64 QAM connectivity
applications

IEEE 802.16e 2-6 GHz 30 bit/S 5 Kms BPSK, QPSK, 16 Mobile and Wireless
Downlink/Uplink QAM, 64 QAM applications, WMAN