ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and many other functions. Consists of endocrine glands, such
as the pituitary gland, that secrete hormones.
 It is composed of endocrine glands and specialized endocrine cells
located throughout the body.
 Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute amounts of chemical
messengers called hormones into the bloodstream, rather into a duct.
Hormones then travel through the general blood circulation to target tissues
or effectors.
 From the Greek words endo, meaning within, and krino, to secrete.
 Endocrinology, study of endocrine system.
10 Functions Of The Endocrine
System
1. Metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue Development
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
7. Control of glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of reproductive functions
9. Uterine contractions and milk release
10.Immune system regulation
 Chemical
Messenger/
Hormones
4 Categories of chemical
messengers
1.Autocrine chemical messengers
 Secreted by cells in a local area; influences the activity of the same cell or cell
type from which it was secreted.
2. Paracrine chemical messengers
 Produce by a wide variety of tissues and secreted into extracellular fluid; has a
localized effect on other tissues
3. Neurotransmitter
 Produce by neurons; secreted into a synaptic cleft by presynaptic nerve
terminals; travels short distances; influences postsynaptic cells
4. Endocrine chemical messengers
 Secreted into the blood by specialized cells, travels some distance to target
tissues; results in coordinated regulation of cell function
2 types of hormones
1. Lipid-Soluble Hormones
 Nonpolar, and include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and fatty
acid derivative hormones, such as certain eicosanoids.
 Small molecules and are insoluble in water based fluids, such as the
plasma of blood. For these reasons, lipid-soluble hormones travel in the
bloodstream attached to binding proteins.
 Lifespan lasts a few days to as long as several weeks.
 Without the binding proteins, the lipid-soluble hormones would quickly
diffuse out of capillaries and be degraded by enzymes of the liver and
lungs or be removed from the body by the kidneys.
2. Water-Soluble Hormones

 Polar molecules; they include protein hormones, peptide hormones, and

most amino acid derivative hormones.
 Can dissolve in blood, many circulate as free hormones, meaning that most
of them dissolve directly into the blood and are delivered to their target
tissue without attaching to a binding protein
 Have relatively short half-lives because they rapidly degraded by enzymes,
called proteases within the bloodstream.
 Hormone target cells destroy water-soluble hormones and take up the
hormone through endocytosis, thus terminating their effect.
3 stimulation
of hormone
release
1. Control By Humoral Stimuli

 Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the release of some

hormones.
 Elevated blood glucose levels directly stimulate insulin secretion by the
pancreas
 Elevated blood potassium levels directly stimulate aldosterone release by
the adrenal cortex
2. Control by neural stimuli

 Cause hormone secretion in direct response to action potentials in neurons,

as occurs during stress or exercise
 For example, the sympathetic nervous system stimulates the secretion of
epinephrine and norepinephrine, from the adrenal glands during exercise.
When the exercise stops, the neural stimulation declines and the secretion
of epinephrine and norepinephrine decreases.
3. Control by hormonal stimuli

 Hormones that stimulate another the secretion of another hormone.

 For example, hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
regulate the secretion of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland.
3 INHIBITION
OF HORMONE
RELEASE
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE BY
HUMORAL STIMULI
 There exists a companion hormone whose release is inhibited by the same
humoral stimulus.
 The companion hormone’s effects oppose those of the secreted hormone
and counteract the secreted hormone’s action.
 Aldosterone response to low blood pressure, heart secretes the hormone
atrial natriuretic peptide which lowers blood pressure.
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE BY
NEURAL STIMULI
 Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate targets. If the
neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target endocrine gland does not secrete
hormones.
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE BY
hormonal stimuli
 Hormones prevents the secretion of other hormones.
REGULATION OF HORMONE LEVELS IN
THE BLOOD
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK prevents further hormone secretion once a set point is
achieved
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK is a self promoting system whereby the stimulation of
hormone secretion over time.
 HORMONE
RECEPTORS AND
MECHANISMS OF
ACTION
CLASSES OF RECEPTORS

 LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES BIND TO NUCLEAR RECEPTORS located inside the

nucleus of the target cell. Some lipid-soluble hormones have rapid actions
that are most likely mediated via a membrane-bound receptor.
 WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES BIND TO MEMBRANE-BOUND RECEPTORS,
which are integral membrane proteins.
ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS

 NUCEAR RECEPTORS have portions that allow them to bind to the DNA in
the nucleus once the hormone is bound
 NUCLEAR RECEPTORS can not respond immediately because it takes time
to produce the mRNA and the protein.
Membrane-Bound Receptors and
Signal Amplifiaction
 When a hormone bind to a membrane-bound receptor, G proteins are
activated. The a subunit of the G protein can bind to ion channels and
cause them to open or change the rate of synthesis of intracellular
mediators, such as cAMP
 Second-messenger systems act rapidly because they act on already
existing enzymes and produce an amplification effect.
The Hypothalamus Essentials

 plays a significant role in the endocrine system. It is responsible for maintaining

your body’s internal balance, which is known as homeostasis. To do this, the
hypothalamus helps stimulate or inhibit many of your body’s key processes,
including:
 Heart rate and blood pressure
 Body temperature
 Fluid and electrolyte balance, including thirst
 Appetite and body weight
 Glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines
 Production of substances that influence the pituitary gland to release hormones
 Sleep cycles
Primary hormones secreted by the hypothalamus include:
•Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): This hormone increases water absorption into the
blood by the kidneys.
•Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): CRH sends a message to the anterior
pituitary gland to stimulate the adrenal glands to release corticosteroids, which help
regulate metabolism and immune response.
•Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary
to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which
work together to ensure normal functioning of the ovaries and testes.
•Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) or growth hormone-inhibiting
hormone (GHIH) (also known as somatostain): GHRH prompts the anterior pituitary
to release growth hormone (GH); GHIH has the opposite effect. In children, GH is
essential to maintaining a healthy body composition. In adults, it aids healthy bone
and muscle mass and affects fat distribution.
•Oxytocin: Oxytocin is involved in a variety of processes, such as orgasm, the ability
to trust, body temperature, sleep cycles, and the release of breast milk.
•Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) or prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) (also
known as dopamine): PRH prompts the anterior pituitary to stimulate breast milk
production through the production of prolactin. Conversely, PIH inhibits prolactin, and
thereby, milk production. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH): TRH triggers the
release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates release of thyroid
hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy, and growth and development.
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid’s main role in the endocrine
system is to regulate your metabolism,
which is your body’s ability to break down
food and convert it to energy. Food
essentially fuels the body, and each of our
bodies uses that fuel at different rates. This
is why you often hear about some people
having a “fast” metabolism and others
having a “slow” metabolism.
Hormones of the Thyroid
The two main hormones the thyroid produces and releases are T3 (tri-
iodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine). A thyroid that is functioning normally
produces approximately 80% T4 and about 20% T3, though T3 is the
stronger of the pair.

To a lesser extent, the thyroid also produces calcitonin, which helps control
blood calcium levels.

Diseases and Disorders of the Thyroid

There are many diseases and disorders associated with the thyroid. They
can develop at any age and can result from a variety of causes—injury,
disease, or dietary deficiency, for instance. But in most cases, they can be
traced to the following problems:
•Too much or too little thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism and
hypothyroidism, respectively).
•Abnormal thyroid growth
•Nodules or lumps within the thyroid
•Thyroid cancer
Some of the Most Common Thyroid Disorders.
To learn more, read our article about common thyroid problems.
•Goiters: A goiter is a bulge in the neck. A toxic goiter is associated with hyperthyroidism, and a
non-toxic goiter, also known as a simple or endemic goiter, is caused by iodine deficiency.
•Hyperthyroidism: Hyperthyroidism is caused by too much thyroid hormone. People with
hyperthyroidism are often sensitive to heat, hyperactive, and eat excessively. Goiter is sometimes a
side effect of hyperthyroidism. This is due to an over-stimulated thyroid and inflamed tissues,
respectively.
•Hypothyroidism: Hypothyroidism is a common condition characterized by too little thyroid
hormone. In infants, the condition is known as cretinism. Cretinism has very serious side effects,
including abnormal bone formation and mental retardation. If you have hypothyroidism as an adult,
you may experience sensitivity to cold, little appetite, and overall sluggishness. Hypothyroidism
often goes unnoticed, sometimes for years, before being diagnosed.
•Solitary thyroid nodules: Solitary nodules, or lumps, in the thyroid are actually quite common—in
fact, it’s estimated that more than half the population will have a nodule in their thyroid. The great
majority of nodules are benign. Usually, a fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNA) will determine if the
nodule is cancerous.
• Thyroid cancer: Thyroid cancer is fairly common, though long-term survival rates are excellent.
Occasionally, symptoms such as hoarseness, neck pain, and enlarged lymph nodes occur in
people with thyroid cancer. Thyroid cancer can affect anyone at any age, though women and
people over thirty are most likely to develop the condition.
•Thyroiditis: Thyroiditis is an inflammation of the thyroid that may be associated with abnormal
thyroid function (particularly hyperthyroidism). Inflammation can cause the thyroid’s cells to die,
making the thyroid unable to produce enough hormones to maintain the body's normal metabolism.
There are five types of thyroiditis, and the treatment is specific to each.
Parathyroid Hormone
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) has a very powerful influence on the cells of
your bones by causing them to release their calcium into the bloodstream.
•PTH regulates how much calcium is absorbed from your diet, how much
calcium is excreted by your kidneys, and how much calcium is stored in
your bones.
•We store many pounds of calcium in our bones, and it is readily available
to the rest of the body at the request of the parathyroid glands.
•PTH increases the formation of active vitamin D, and it is active vitamin D
that increases intestinal calcium and phosphorus absorption.
Diseases and Disorders of the Parathyroid
When the parathyroid releases too much or too little PTH, it adversely affects your body in a
variety of ways. Below are common diseases and disorders associated with the parathyroid
glands:

•Hyperparathyroidism: The most common disease of parathyroid glands is

hyperparathyroidism, which is characterized by excess PTH hormone, regardless of calcium
levels. In other words, the parathyroid glands continue to make large amounts of PTH even
when the calcium level is normal, and they should not be making the hormone at all.
•Hypoparathyroidism: Hypoparathyroidism is the combination of symptoms due to inadequate
parathyroid hormone production. This leads to decreased blood levels of calcium
(hypocalcemia) and increased levels of blood phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia).This is a rare
condition and most commonly occurs because of damage or removal of parathyroid glands
during parathyroid or thyroid surgery.

•Osteoporosis: When one of the parathyroid glands is overactive, it releases too much PTH
hormone. This causes your bones to release calcium constantly into the blood stream. Without
enough calcium in your bones, they lose their density and hardness. Osteoporosis is
characterized by this loss of calcium and bone density.
The adrenal glands are two glands that sit on top of your
kidneys that are made up of two distinct parts.
•The adrenal cortex—the outer part of the gland—
produces hormones that are vital to life, such as cortisol
(which helps regulate metabolism and helps your body
respond to stress) and aldosterone (which helps control
blood pressure).
•The adrenal medulla—the inner part of the gland—
produces nonessential (that is, you don’t need them to
live) hormones, such as adrenaline (which helps your body
react to stress).
 Adrenal Cortex Hormones
The adrenal cortex produces two main groups of corticosteroid hormones—glucocorticoids and
mineralcorticoids. The release of glucocorticoids is triggered by the hypothalamus and pituitary
gland. Mineralcorticoids are mediated by signals triggered by the kidney.

When the hypothalamus produces corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), it stimulates the

pituitary gland to release adrenal corticotrophic hormone (ACTH). These hormones, in turn, alert
the adrenal glands to produce corticosteroid hormones.

Glucocorticoids released by the adrenal cortex include:

•Hydrocortisone: Commonly known as cortisol, it regulates how the body converts fats, proteins,
and carbohydrates to energy. It also helps regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular function.
•Corticosterone: This hormone works with hydrocortisone to regulate immune response and
suppress inflammatory reactions.

The principle mineralcorticoid is aldosterone, which maintains the right balance of salt and water
while helping control blood pressure.

There is a third class of hormone released by the adrenal cortex, known as sex steroids or sex
hormones. The adrenal cortex releases small amounts of male and female sex hormones.
However, their impact is usually overshadowed by the greater amounts of hormones (such as
estrogen and testosterone) released by the ovaries or testes.
Adrenal Medulla Hormones
Unlike the adrenal cortex, the adrenal medulla does not perform any vital functions. That is, you don’t need it to
live. But that hardly means the adrenal medulla is useless. The hormones of the adrenal medulla are released
after the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated, which occurs when you’re stressed. As such, the adrenal
medulla helps you deal with physical and emotional stress. You can learn more by reading a SpineUniverse
article about the sympathetic nervous system.

You may be familiar with the fight-or-flight response—a process initiated by the sympathetic nervous system
when your body encounters a threatening (stressful) situation. The hormones of the adrenal medulla contribute to
this response.

Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla are:

•Epinephrine: Most people know epinephrine by its other name—adrenaline. This hormone rapidly responds to
stress by increasing your heart rate and rushing blood to the muscles and brain. It also spikes your blood sugar
level by helping convert glycogen to glucose in the liver. (Glycogen is the liver’s storage form of glucose.)
•Norepinephrine: Also known as noradrenaline, this hormone works with epinephrine in responding to stress.
However, it can cause vasoconstriction (the narrowing of blood vessels). This results in high blood pressure.

Disorders and Diseases of the Adrenal Glands

There are multiple reasons why the adrenal glands might not work as they should. The problem could be with the
adrenal gland itself, or the root cause may be due to a defect in another gland.
Below are the most common disorders and diseases of the adrenal glands:
•Addison’s disease: This rare disorder may affect anyone at any age. It develops when the
adrenal cortex fails to produce enough cortisol and aldosterone. To learn more, read our article
about Addison's Disease.
•Adrenal cancer: Adrenal cancer is an aggressive cancer, but it’s very rare. Malignant adrenal
tumors are rarely confined to the adrenal glands—they tend to spread to other organs and cause
adverse changes within the body because of the excess hormones they produce. To learn more,
read our article about adrenal cancer.
•Cushing’s syndrome: Cushing’s syndrome is an uncommon condition that is essentially the
opposite of Addison’s disease. It is caused by overproduction of the hormone cortisol. There are a
variety of causes of this disorder—a tumor in the adrenal gland or pituitary gland could be to blame.
To learn more, read our article about Cushing's syndrome.
•Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: This genetic disorder is characterized by low levels of cortisol.
It’s common for people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia to have additional hormone problems
such as low levels of aldosterone (which maintains a balance of water and salt).
The adrenal glands have a multi-functional role in the endocrine system. The two very different
parts of these glands, the medulla and cortex, regulate and maintain many of your internal
processes—from metabolism to the fight-or-flight response.
Hormones of the Pancreas
The production of pancreatic hormones, including insulin, somatostatin, gastrin, and
glucagon, play an important role in maintaining sugar and salt balance in our bodies.

Primary hormones secreted by the pancreas include:

•Gastrin: This hormone aids digestion by stimulating certain cells in the stomach to
produce acid.
•Glucagon: Glucagon helps insulin maintain normal blood glucose by working in the
opposite way of insulin. It stimulates your cells to release glucose, and this raises your
blood glucose levels.
•Insulin: This hormone regulates blood glucose by allowing many of your body’s cells to
absorb and use glucose. In turn, this drops blood glucose levels.
•Somatostatin: When levels of other pancreatic hormones, such as insulin and glucagon,
get too high, somatostatin is secreted to maintain a balance of glucose and/or salt in the
blood.
•Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP): This hormone helps control water secretion and
absorption from the intestines by stimulating the intestinal cells to release water and salts
into the intestines.
Diseases and Disorders of the Pancreas
Problems in the production or regulation of pancreatic hormones will cause complications related to
blood sugar imbalance.

Of all the diseases and disorders of the pancreas, the most well-known is diabetes.
•Type 1 diabetes: If you have type 1 diabetes, then your body doesn’t produce any insulin to handle
the glucose in your body. Insulin deficiency causes a range of complications, so people with type 1
diabetes have to take insulin to help their body use glucose appropriately.

Type 2 diabetes: Type 2 diabetes is much more prevalent than type 1. People with type 2 diabetes
may be able to produce insulin, but their bodies don’t use it correctly. They might also be unable to
produce enough insulin to handle the glucose in their body. Lifestyle choices, such as diet and
exercise, play a major role in managing and preventing type 2 diabetes.
Other common diseases and disorders associated with the pancreas are:
•Hyperglycemia: This condition is caused by abnormally high blood glucose levels. It can be caused
by overproduction of the hormone glucagon. To learn more, read our article about hyperglycemia.
•Hypoglycemia: Conversely, hypoglycemia is caused by low blood glucose levels. It is caused by a
relative overproduction of insulin. To learn more, read our article about hypoglycemia.
Despite the fact that the great majority of pancreatic cells are devoted to digestive function, the
endocrine cells play a major role in your overall health. By regulating your blood sugar levels, the
pancreatic hormones are directly related to some of the most common diseases of today, including
diabetes.
Testosterone: The Hormone of the Testes
Testosterone is necessary for proper physical development in boys. It is the primary androgen, which is the
term for any substance that stimulates and/or maintains masculine development. During puberty, testosterone
is involved in many of the processes that transition a boy to manhood, including:
•Healthy development of male sex organs
•Growth of facial and body hair
•Lowering of the voice
•Increase in height
•Increase in muscle mass
•Growth of the Adam’s apple
The importance of testosterone is not limited to puberty. Throughout adulthood, the hormone is integral in a
variety of functions, such as:
•Maintaining libido
•Sperm production
•Maintaining muscle strength and mass
•Promoting healthy bone density
Testosterone Production
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland control how much testosterone the testes produce and secrete.

The hypothalamus sends a signal to the pituitary gland to release gonadotrophic substances (follicle stimulating
hormone and luteinizing hormone). Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates testosterone production. If too much
testosterone is produced, the hypothalamus alerts the pituitary gland to make less LH, which tells the testes to
decrease testosterone levels.
Disorders of the Testes: Hypogonadism
Hypogonadism is a testicular disorder associated with low testosterone. Having testosterone levels that
are too low causes a variety of problems, including:
•Decreased sex drive
•Diminished muscle mass
•Low sperm count (reduced fertility)
•Loss of body hair
There are two types of hypogonadism—primary and secondary. Primary refers to a defect with the
testicles, and secondary involves a problem in the pituitary gland that indirectly affects testosterone
production.

The condition may be caused by many things and is most commonly the result of:
•Aging
•Defects in the pituitary and/or hypothalamus, such as pituitary tumors (which adversely affect the
pituitary’s ability to function normally) and high prolactin levels (too much of the hormone causes a drop
in testosterone levels)
•Medications
•Testes-based conditions, such as severe injury, and radiation or chemotherapy, can all deplete
testosterone levels
The testes play a vital role not only in the male reproductive system but in the endocrine system as
well. The release of the hormone testosterone is integral to the healthy development of male physical
characteristics.
Hormones of the Ovaries
Ovaries produce and release two groups of sex hormones—progesterone and estrogen. There are
actually three major estrogens, known as estradiol, estrone, and estriol. These substances work
together to promote the healthy development of female sex characteristics during puberty and to
ensure fertility.

Estrogen (estradiol, specifically) is instrumental in breast development, fat distribution in the hips,
legs, and breasts, and the development of reproductive organs.

To a lesser extent, the ovaries release the hormone relaxin prior to giving birth. Another minor
hormone is inhibin, which is important for signaling to the pituitary to inhibit follicle-stimulating
hormone secretion.
Progesterone and Estrogen Production and Function
Progesterone and estrogen are necessary to prepare the uterus for menstruation, and their release is
triggered by the hypothalamus.

Once you reach puberty, the ovaries release a single egg each month (the ovaries typically alternate
releasing an egg)—this is called ovulation. The hypothalamus sends a signal to the pituitary gland to
release gonadotrophic substances (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone). These
hormones are essential to normal reproductive function—including regulation of the menstrual cycle.

As the egg migrates down the fallopian tube, progesterone is released. It is secreted by a temporary gland
formed within the ovary after ovulation called the corpus luteum. Progesterone prepares the body for
pregnancy by causing the uterine lining to thicken. If a woman is not pregnant, the corpus luteum
disappears.

If a woman is pregnant, the pregnancy will trigger high levels of estrogen and progesterone, which prevent
further eggs from maturing. Progesterone is secreted to prevent uterine contractions that may disturb the
growing embryo. The hormone also prepares the breasts for lactation.

Increased estrogen levels near the end of pregnancy alert the pituitary gland to release oxytocin, which
causes uterine contractions. Before delivery, the ovaries release relaxin, which as the name suggests,
loosens the pelvic ligaments in preparation for labor.

More hormones are released during pregnancy than at any other time of a woman’s life, but during
menopause—which marks the end of fertility—estrogen levels fall fast. This can lead to a range of
complications.
Diseases and Disorders of the Ovaries
•Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is commonly associated with menopause, just like mood swings and
hot flashes.
•Menopause is marked by the rapid loss of estrogen. The role estrogen play in bone loss can best be
described in terms of a battle between osteoclasts (bone absorbing cells) and osteoblasts (bone
producing cells). Estrogen is on the side of the osteoblasts, but as the estrogens diminish, the
osteoblasts are discouraged from producing more bone. As such, the osteoclasts win by absorbing
more bone than is being produced by the osteoblasts.
Estrogen replacement therapy during menopause protects bone mass and helps protect against the
risk of osteoporotic fractures.
•Ovarian Cancer: Ovarian cancer is an extremely serious, but rare, disease. Its symptoms usually
don’t become apparent until the cancer has progressed into the later stages.

Symptoms of ovarian cancer include: persistent abdominal pain, indigestion, bloating, abnormal
uterine bleeding, and pain during sexual intercourse. These are common problems, so in the great
majority of cases, they will not indicate cancer. However, it’s important you pay attention to your body
and discuss anything out of the ordinary—no matter how insignificant you think it may be—with your
doctor.
•Ovarian Cysts: Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled sacs that affect women of all ages, though mostly
women of child-bearing age. Cysts are very common—and they can range in size from a pea to a
grapefruit. The majority of cysts are harmless, though larger cysts (those larger than 5 cm in
diameter) may need to be surgically removed because large cysts can twist the ovary and disrupt its
blood supply.
•Cysts can form for a variety of reasons. Oftentimes, they’re simply part of
normal menstruation. You may experience no symptoms, and the cysts will go
away after a few cycles. These are known as functional cysts.

The great majority of cysts are benign. But abnormal or pathological cysts, such
as those in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), may cause painful symptoms.
Treatment for ovarian cysts depends on the size and type of cyst. If you’re
experiencing pain, talk to your doctor. He or she will determine what treatment is
best for you.
Thymus Essentials
•The thymus gland, located behind your sternum and between your lungs, is only active until puberty.
•After puberty, the thymus starts to slowly shrink and become replaced by fat.
•Thymosin is the hormone of the thymus, and it stimulates the development of disease-fighting T cells.
The thymus gland will not function throughout a full lifetime, but it has a big responsibility when it’s
active—helping the body protect itself against autoimmunity, which occurs when the immune system
turns against itself. Therefore, the thymus plays a vital role in the lymphatic system (your body’s defense
network) and endocrine system.

Before birth and throughout childhood, the thymus is instrumental in the production and maturation of T-
lymphocytes or T cells, a specific type of white blood cell that protects the body from certain threats,
including viruses and infections. The thymus produces and secretes thymosin, a hormone necessary for
T cell development and production.

The thymus is special in that, unlike most organs, it is at its largest in children. Once you reach puberty,
the thymus starts to slowly shrink and become replaced by fat. By age 75, the thymus is little more than
fatty tissue. Fortunately, the thymus produces all of your T cells by the time you reach puberty.
 Pineal Gland Essentials
•Of the endocrine organs, the function of the pineal gland was the last discovered.
•Located deep in the center of the brain, the pineal gland was once known as the “third
eye.”
•The pineal gland produces melatonin, which helps maintain circadian rhythm and
regulate reproductive hormones.

Melatonin: The Pineal Gland Hormone

The pineal gland secretes a single hormone—melatonin (not to be confused with the pigment melanin).
This simple hormone is special because its secretion is dictated by light. Researchers have determined
that melatonin has two primary functions in humans—to help control your circadian (or biological)
rhythm and regulate certain reproductive hormones.

Circadian Rhythm
Your circadian rhythm is a 24-hour biological cycle characterized by sleep-wake patterns. Daylight and
darkness help dictate your circadian rhythm. Light exposure stops the release of melatonin, and in turn,
this helps control your circadian rhythms.

Melatonin secretion is low during the daylight hours and high during dark periods, which has some
influence over your reaction to photoperiod (the length of day versus night). Naturally, photoperiod
affects sleep patterns, but melatonin’s degree of impact over sleep patterns is disputed.