UNIT -2

GEOMETRIC MODELING &

Mathematical representation of
curves, surface, solid, methods of
modeling

By
Dr. Anurag Dixit
CAD TOOLS

Computer graphics
concepts

CAD
tools

Geometric
modeling
Design tools
GEOMETRIC MODELING
* Geometric modelling refers to a set of techniques
concerned mainly with developing efficient
representations of geometric aspects of a design process
in the computer database and developing the image of an
object on the graphics screen
* It is defined as the complete representation of an object
with graphical and non graphical information.
* It generates the mathematical description of the geometry
and non geometry of an object on the screen.
In geometric modelling the image of an object created on graphics
screen by inputting three types of commands to the computer.

By inputting three types of commands to the computer.

1) Basic Entities such as :- points, lines ,circles.
2) Second commands accomplish the transformations of these
elements.
3) Third type of commands causes the various graphic elements to
be joined into desired shape of the object.

*User construct a geometric model of an object by inputting the data

through input devices .Software then converts such data into
mathematical representation which stores in database ,model
which is stored in database can be use for analysis ,modification .

*Therefore, geometric modelling is a fundamental part of all CAD

tools- FEM,NC,CATIA,PRO-E,ANSYS.
FEATURE OF GM
1. As a geometric model in a mathematical form ,any of data related with the object
can be stored in the model .this make the model the true replica of an object.

2. As the model is stored in the mathematical form, the model

modification can carried out by the operation like: move ,rotate,scale,mirror union
etc .
3.Geometric model can be used to evaluate the various properties of an object such as
mass,volume,moment of inertia etc.

4.A geometric model can be automatically converted in -views.

5. A Geometric model can be used by finite element analysis to perform different types
of analysis ,such as stress- strain analysis, kinematic analysis, dynamic analysis,
thermal analysis etc.

6. A geometric model can used by the CAM software to generates a complete tool path
required for the computer aided manufacturing.
METHODS OF GM

1.Wire Frame Modeling.

2. Surface modeling.
3.Solid modeling
WIRE-FRAME MODELLING
*It is the oldest method of geometric modeling.
*In wire frame modelling a geometric model of an object is created
by using the two –dimensional geometric entities such as : point,
lines ,curves,polygon,circles etc.
*The model appears like a frame constructed out of wire and hence
called as wire-frame model.
*Wireframe representation of 3d consist finite set of point ,vertices
,connecting edges ,edge type
Wire Frame model
consist of a finite set
of points ,edges
,vertices connecting
various pairs of these
point and edges for
visualization of object.
TYPES OF WIRE FRAME

1. 2D wire frame modeling.- model in basically in

2d coordinate. ,it is suitable for flat ,it is rect
region
2. 3D wire frame modeling.- it is use for 3d
representation of object consist of a finite set
of point & connecting edges which define
object visualization.
ADVANTAGES OF WIRE FRAME MODELING

1.Wire frame model is simple to construct.

2.Wire frame models requires less computer
memory for storage compared to surface and
solid modeling.
3.Wire frame model form the basis for surface
model.
4.CPU time require to retrieve ,edit or update the
wire frame model is less compared to surface
LIMITATIONS OF WIRE FRAME MODELING
1. A wire frame model of an object is more ambiguous
representation than its surface and solid models.
2. It is difficult and time consuming process to generate
the wire frame model for complicated objects.
3.The wire frame models of the complicated objects are
confusing to the viewer for interpretation ,especially if
there is no hidden line removal facility.
4. It require more input data – include coordinate, face,
depth, edge connectivity.
5. It is not possible to calculate the properties such as
mass ,volume, moment of inertia etc.
6.Because of the confusing representation ,wire model is
not use for the application software.
TYPES OF WIRE –FRAME ENTITIES
1.Analytical curves .- curves which defined by the
analytically(equation) are known as analytic curve.
e.g. Lines,circles,ellipse,parabolas and hyperbola

2. Synthetic curves-
The curves which are defined by the set of data
points are known as synthetic curves.
e.g. B-spline, beta- spline, nu- spline and Bezier
curves
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF CURVES

 Curve is important entities in geometric

modeling of the object.
 It is represented by coordinates or by its
analytical equation.
 Different types of 2D & 3D
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF CURVES
A curve segment is a point bounded collection of points whose coordinates are given by continuous,
one-parameter, single-valued mathematical functions of the form.
x = x(u) y = y(u) z = z(u)
The parametric value of u is constrained to the interval u Є [0,1]. The curve is bounded between
two points at u=0 and the other at u=1.
Any point on the curve can be treated as a component of vector p(u). This p(u) is the vector to the
point x(u), y(u), z(u) and pu(u) is the tangent vector to the curve at the same point.
here
HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE
 This class of spline is most often used to set up paths for object motions or to
provide a representation for an existing object or drawing, but interpolation splines
are also used sometimes to design object shapes. Cubic polynomials offer a
reasonable compromise between flexibility and speed of computation. Compared to
higher – order polynomials, cubic splines require less calculations and memory and
they are more stable. Compared to lower-order polynomials, cubic splines are more
flexible for modeling arbitrary curve shapes .

Given a set of control points, cubic interpolation splines are obtained by

fitting the input points with a piecewise cubic polynomial curve that passes
through every control point. Suppose we have n+1 control points specified
with coordinates
A cubic interpolation fit of these points is illustrated in figure below. We can
describe the parametric cubic polynomial that is to be fitted between each pair
of control points with the following set of equations:
GEOMETRIC CONTINUITY CONDITIONS
 zero- order geometric continuity, described as G0 continuity, is the
same as zero- order parametric continuity. That is, the two curves
sections must have the same coordinate position at the boundary point.

 First order geometric continuity, or G1 continuity, means that the

parametric first derivatives are proportional at the intersection on two
successive sections. If we denote the parametric position on the curve
as P(u), the direction of the tangent vector P'(u), but not necessarily its
magnitude, will be the same for two successive curve sections at their
joining point under G1 continuity.
 Second-order geometric continuity, or G2 continuity, means that
both the first and second parametric derivatives of the two curve
sections are proportional at their boundary. Under G2 continuity,
curvatures of two curve sections will match at the joining position.
Figure 1: Curves with C1 continuity
INTERPOLATION & APPROXIMATION
spline curve by giving a set of coordinate
positions, called control points, which indicates
the general shape of the curve. These control
points are then fitted with piecewise continuous
parametric polynomial functions in one of two
ways. When polynomial sections are fitted so that
the curve passes through each control point, as in
fig. below. The resulting curve is said to
interpolate the set of control points. On the other
hand, when the polynomials are fitted to the
general control point path without necessarily
passing through any control point, the resulting
curve is said to approximate the set of control
points figure below.
INTERPOLATION CURVES ARE COMMONLY USED TO
DIGITIZE DRAWINGS OR TO SPECIFY ANIMATION
PATHS. APPROXIMATION CURVES ARE PRIMARILY
USED AS DESIGN TOOLS TO STRUCTURE OBJECT
SURFACES. FIGURE BELOW SHOWS AN
APPROXIMATION SPLINE SURFACE CREATED FOR A
DESIGN APPLICATION. STRAIGHT LINES CONNECT
THE CONTROL-POINT POSITIONS ABOVE THE
SURFACE.
BEZIER CURVES

Bezier Curves – Bezier curve uses the given data point or vertices as control point .This
control points form control polygon but the curve pass through first and last point and other
points to approximated.
In general, a Bezier curve section can be fitted to any number of control points.

The number of control points to be approximated and their relative position determine the
degree of the Bezier polynomial.
Suppose we are given n + 1 control-point positions: Pk = (xk, yk, zk), with k varying from 0 to
n. These coordinate points can be blended to produce the following position vector P(u),
which describes the path of an approximating Bezier polynomial function between P0 and
Pn
BEZIER CURVES

 It is not very convenient to change the shape of

hermite cubic splines ,the shape of bezier curve
controlled by defining its point.
 In order o provide more flexibility for changing the
shape of curve ,curve known as bezier curve,
where the order or degree of bezier curve is
variable which relate with no of points defining nth
degree which permit higher order continuity, this is
not in HCS.
 Smoother than cubic splines because it has higere
order derivatives.
They are also easy to implement. And flexible for changing the shape of curve
For these reasons, Bezier splines are widely available in various CAD system
 Bezier curve and surfaces are created by P.Bezier at Renault
automobile company I 1962 which use in software system
UNISURF for outer panels of car surfaces.
 This spline approximation method.
 The Bezier curve is defined in terms of the n+1 points . These
points are called data or control points . It uses the vertices or data
points as control point for approximating the generated curve.
 These data points form the polygon called as characteristics
polygon which define curve shape only first and last point of
polygon lie on the curve other define the shape of curve .
 Curve is tangent to first and last polygon segments.
-The order of
defining the
control points
changes the
polygon
definition which
changes the
curve shape

-Flexibility
increase with
increase of
control point.
 As with a charactering matrix, or with
blending functions. For general Bezier
curves, the blending-function specification
is the most convenient.

The Bezier blending functions Bk,n(u) are the Bernstein Polynomials:

Where the C (n,k) are the binomial

Vector equation below represents a set of three
parametric equations for the individual curve
CHARACTERISTICS OF BEZIER CURVE
1. The Bezier curves does not use tangent vectors for controlling its
shape. The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by number of data
points . This gives flexibility in controlling the shape of the
curve.
2. The Bezier with n+1 data points is defined by the polynomial of
nth degree .the higher order polynomial of nth degree .Higher
order gives higher order continuity.
3.The curve shape can be modified by either changing one or more
vertices of polygon or by keeping the polygon fixed and
specifying multiple coincident points at a vertex .

4. Each control points(P0,P1,P2……..Pn) is most influenced on

the curve shape at u.

5. A closed Bezier curve can be generated by closing its

characteristics polygon i.e. choosing P0 and Pn to be coincident.
B-SPLINE CURVES
 One of the problem associated with bezier curves is that ,with
the an increase in the number of control points ,the order of the
polynomial representing the curve increases .
 The n+1 number of control points gives the polynomial of nth
order .this makes the parametric equation complicated and
increase the computation.
 In order to overcome this drawback of bezier curve ,B-spline
curves are used.
 B-spline curve separates the order of polynomial representing
the curve from the number of given control points
WE CAN WRITE A GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR THE CALCULATION OF COORDINATE
POSITIONS ALONG A B-SPLINE CURVE IN A BLENDING-FUNCTION FORMULATION
AS

Blending functions for B-spline curves are defined by the Cox-deBoor

recursion formulas
These are the most widely used class of approximating splines. B-
splines have advantages over Bezier splines:
(1)the degree of a B-spline polynomial can be set independently of
the number of control points (with certain limitations), and
(2) B-splines allow local control over the shape of a spline curve or
surface.
(3)Beside the local control ,B-spline curve allow us to vary the
control points without changing the degree of the polynomial .
(4)B-spline give better control
SURFACE MODELING
Surface modeling is more sophisticated than wireframe modeling in that it
defines not only the edges of a 3D object, but also its surfaces.
The representation of the objects such as : Automotive bodies , aircraft bodies ,
ship bodies, casting and dies ,cannot be achieved by wire frame modeling. In
such cases another method of geometric modeling ,known as surface modeling.
Surface model wide application in manufacturing forging,casting and moulded
products
A surface model is generated by using wireframe entities or curve
.(Analytical or synthetic)
A system may require one wire-frame entity to create a surface of
revolution or it may require two wire frame entities (Rails of the
surfaces)to create a ruled surface.
Surface model is bounded by faces or surface, apart from standard
surface there are different surfaces such as wedge ,dome ,torus,
dish.
In order to visualization of a surface on a
graphic display artificial lines called
mesh are added on the surface . Fig 1
shows surface of revolution with mesh
size 4x4 ,and fig 2 regeneration of the
surface with a mesh size of 20x20
mesh size. The mesh size controlled by
the user .
The finer mesh size of surface require
longer CPU time to construct the
surface model .It does not improve
mathematical representation ,it only
improve its visualization .
Most of the surface models are rendering
features ,which improve colour effect,
model properties ,aesthetic ,calculation
of surface properties.
REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES

It require for developing the equation and algorithms

for computation and programming purpose.

1.Non –Parametric Representation- In this

representation each point on surface are expressed by
relationship between x,y,z
2. Parametric Representation
In this each point on surface is expressed not as relationship but also function of
independent parameter u &v ..
The parameter u & v acts as local coordinates for points on the surface or patch,
In this Vector P(x,y) described in terms of of two variables u &v this function for
different value of u &v describe a point on surface .

P(u,v) =(x,y,z)= x(u,v), y(u,v) , z(u,v)

Surfaces are the set of rect or triangular

Patches (mathematical element to create a composite
surface which consist of four boundary
points P(0,0),P(1,0), P(1,1) P(0,1)

To generate curves on a surface patch

,one can fix the value of one of the parametric
variable say u to obtain in terms of other variable v
.by continuing this process first for one variable and
then for other ,network of two parametric families
of curves are generated
SURFACE ENTITIES
1.Analytic Surface.- which are defined by the analytical
equation are known as analytic surfaces.
e.g – Plane surface, ruled surface , surface of revolution
,tabulated surface.

2.Synthetic Surfaces.-which defined by set of points is

known as synthetic surfaces.
these are represented by polynomials .
e.g- Bezier surfaces,B-spline Surface, Coons Patch, Fillet
Surface and offset surface
1.ANALYTIC SURFACE
1. This is the simplest surface .it require three non-
coincident points to define an infinite plane .It is
2D Surface. It is most basic surface entity
2.Ruled (lofted) surface.- In a ruled surface ,two bounding
entities or rails are defined to patch a surface between them
A ruled surface is a linear surface and is created by linearly
interpolating between the boundary surface.
Corresponding end points of two boundary curves are joined by
straight lines and the surface in between is obtained by linear
interpolation.
3.Surface of revolution. This is an axisymmetric
surface generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity
in space about the axis of symmetry through a certain
angle.
4.Tabulated surface. This is a surface generated by
translating a planar curve a certain distance along a
specified direction (axis of the cylinder).
SYNTHETIC SURFACE
Synthetic Surfaces which defined by set of points is
known as synthetic surfaces.
Synthetic surfaces are needed when a surface is
represented by a collection of data points .

These are represented by polynomials .

e.g- Bezier surfaces,B-spline Surface, Coons Patch,

Fillet Surface and offset surface
1.Bezier surface. This is a surface that approximates
given input data.
Similarly to the Bezier curve, it does not pass through
all given data points but control by data points.
Control points are connected by dashed lines and solid
lines shows the curves of the surface
2.B-spline surface. This is a surface that can
approximate or interpolate given input data. It is a
synthetic surface. It is a general surface like the Bezier
surface but with the advantage of permitting local
control of the surface.
3.COON PATCH-
The coon patch is the
surface patch created by
using the curves that
forms the closed
boundaries.

4.FILLET SURFACES
A fillet surface is the
blend of two surfaces
which intersect each
other ,if required a fillet
of specified radius provide
at the intersection..
5.OFFSET SURFACE

An Existing surface
can be Used to create
new identical surfaces
,but with different
dimensions by giving
the offset .
ADVANTAGES OF SURFACE MODELING

1.The complex objects such as automotive bodies,

aircraft bodies ,ship bodies, castings and dies
which can not be modeled by wireframe modeling
can be effectively modeled by surface modeling .
2. The surface model provide visualization as
compared to the wire frame models.
3. The surface model of an object is more complete
and less ambiguous and than its wire frame
model.
4. with the surface model ,it is possible to
calculate the properties such as mass and
volume.
5. Surface models are suitable for engg
applications such as Finite element modeling,
6. Shading of an object is possible in surface
modeling.
LIMITATIONS OF SURFACE MODELING

1.The surface models are more complex and

hence require more CPU time and computer
memory for storage .
2. The surface modeling require more training
and mathematical background.
3 Surface modeling can not create the internal
section details etc.
SOLID MODELING
Solid models give designers a complete description or
representation of geometry, constructs, shape,
surface, volume, and density.
 weakness of wireframe and surface
modeling
 confusing geometric description
 incomplete geometric description

 lack topological information

 Tedious modeling process

 Improper visualization
In this approach complete solid
model can be generated from
basic building block
(primitives)which are
combined together in various
way to create specific shapes.

Primitives used in solid

modeling are cylinder ,cone
,block,sphere,torus
Solid models are create by using 3-dimensional geometric
entities, known as primitives

Wire frame and surface

models ,which contain
only geometric data
,solid model contains
both geometric and
topological information
of the object.
GEOMETRY AND TOPOLOGY
GEOMETRY- Geometry is the actual dimensions that define the entities
of the object
It consist – length of lines L1,L2,L3
Angle between the lines.
Radius R of circle.
Center P1 of circle.
TOPOLOGY – Topology is the connectivity and associativity of the of
the different entities of the object. It describe the way in which the
different entities of the object are connected.
It consist –
Line L1 shares a point (vertex) with line L2 and circle C1.
Line L2 shares a vertex with lines L1 and L3
Line L3 Shares a vertex with L2& circle C1
Point Pi lies outside the object
ADVANTAGES OF SOLID MODELING
1.It is easiest and most advanced method of geometric
modeling.
2. It contain both geometric data and topological data thus
solid models store more information than wireframe or
surface models.
3.It provide better visualization as compared to the wire
frame and surface model.
4. Using solid model ,it is possible to calculate the
properties such as mass,volume,moment of inertia
5.Solid modeling produces accurate designs, improves the
quality of design provides complete three- dimensional
definition of the objects.
LIMITATION

1.It is not possible to create the solid models

automatically from the wire frame or surface
model.
2.Solid model require more CPU time to retrive
,edit or update the model.
METHODS OF SOLID MODELING
In CAD systems there are a number of representation schemes for solid modeling
include:
1.Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
2.Boundary Representation (BREP)
3.Sweeping
4.Parametric solid modeling
5.Primitive Instancing.
6.Feature Based Modeling.
7.Cell Decomposition.
8.Spatial Enumeration
9.Octree Encoding.
10.Quadtree Encoding
1.CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY (CSG)
 CSG is the most popular and widely used approach to
create the the solid model of the object
 Objects are represented as a combination of simpler
solid objects (primitives).
 The primitives are such as cube, cylinder, cone, torus,
sphere, blocks etc.
 In CSG approach ,a solid model of an object is created
by using three dimensional geometric entities ,known
as primitives.
 These primitives (two or more) can be combined by a
mathematical SET of Boolean operation to create a
desired model.
 Structuring and combining the primitives of the solid model in graphics
data base is achieved by the use of Boolean operation .
 The Boolean operation are- union(U) –used to combine two primitives
intersection(n) - used to get common volume in two primitives ,and
subtraction(-) – used to subtract one primitive from the other.
 Union
 The sum of all points in
each of two defined sets.
(logical “OR”)
 Also referred to as Add,
Combine, Join, Merge

• Difference
– The points in a source
set minus the points
common to a second
set. (logical “NOT”)
– Set must share
common volume
– Also referred to as
subtraction, remove,
cut

• intersection
– Those points common to each of two defined sets (logical “AND”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as common, conjoin
The database of a CSG model contains both its topology and geometry .the
topology is created by performing Boolean operation that combine
primitives, whereas the geometry is create from parameter of primitives.

The data structure of the CSG model is represented by the CSG tree. The data of
the solid model is stored in its database in the form of CSG tree.

CSG tree gives the complete information about the process of

combining individual primitives by Boolean operation to
generate the solid model .
CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY
(CSG)- CSG TREE

-
BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION
In addition to the CSG approach ,the boundary representation (B-rep)
is the another popular and widely used approach to create the solid
model of objects .
The boundary representation based on the principal that any physical
object can be considered to be bounded by a set of faces.
Objects are represented by their bounded faces. , object created by
using a set of faces. – Each face is bounded by the edges and each
edges bounded by the vertices
Solid model is defined by their enclosing surfaces or boundaries. This technique
consists of the geometric information about the faces, edges and vertices of an
object with the topological data on how these are connected.
 B-Rep data structure
A database method that defines and stores a solid as a set
v5 of vertices, edges and faces (point,line,curve,and surface)
f3 f2 E3 which encloses its volume completely
E4
E1 v4 E7
f4 v3
f5 E2 E6 solid
E8 f1
E5 v2
face1 face2 face3 face4 face5
Combinatorial
structure /
topology

vertex1 vertex2 vertex3 vertex4 vertex5

Metric
(x, y, z)
information/
geometry
EULER’S E Q UATION
Euler’s equation is used to verify the topology of the boundary representation models.
Valid vertices, edges, faces are connected properly.

The B-rep models topologically valid only if it satisfied Euler’ equation, it is not valid.

Euler’s equation for 3D object

General Euler's equation for 3D object given by
F-E+V-L = 2(B-G)
F = Number of faces
E = Number of edges . v5 V = 5, E = 8, F = 5
v = no of vertices
L = No of loop f3 f2 E3 5–8+5=2
E4
G= no of genus E1 v4 E7
B= no of holes f4 f5 E2 E6 v3
E8 f1
v1 E5 v2
2. SWEEPING

In sweeping approach, a solid model is created

by moving a surface along a given path.
There are three type of sweeps.

1.Linear sweep .
2.Non –Linear sweep.
3.Hybrid sweep.
LINEAR SWEEP
In linear sweep ,a surface is
moved in a linear or circular
path .
Linear further divided in two
types- translational and
rotational sweep.
In translational sweep a surface
is moved by a given
distance in space in a
direction perpendicular to
the plane of a surface.
it is also know as extrusion

In rotational sweep ,a surface is rotated about an axis of

rotation by a given angle
NON LINEAR SWEEP
In non linear sweep a surface (curve ) is moved
along the curved path .
HYBRID SWEEP
In a hybrid sweep ,the two surface are swept in two
different direction and the two resulting swept
volume are combined to form the object model .
3.PARAMETRIC SOLID MODELING
In a parametric modeling the solid object are described
mathematically in three dimensional space by the
parametric equation .
The solid object is represented as assembly of non –overlapping
hyperpatches.

Any point in the interior or on the boundary of the hyperpatch is expressed by

a parametric equation containing three variables u,v,w is given by

P(u,v,w) = (x,y,z)= (x(u,v,w),y(u,v,w),z(u,v,w)

4.FEATURE BASED MODELING
Now a day feature based modeling is most widely
used method of creating models.
This approach is more general than the CSG
approach ,it allow the designer create the complex
parts.
Feature is defined as the combination of shape and
operation to build the part.
The shape is two dimensional sketch .e.g of the
shape are rectangle,square,triangle ,circle, ellipse
etc.
STEPS IN FEATURE BASED MODELING

1. Create shape (sketches)- first step is to

create the shapes (sketches) .A shape is a two
dimensional profile or cross-section .
2. Create feature- In second step apply, feature
operations to the shape(sketch) to create the
features e.g. – extrude ,revolve,sweep,loft.
3. Combine feature are combine to form the solid
model of the object.
DIFFERENT FEATURE OPERATION ARE .

1.Extrude 12. Fillet

2.Resolve 13. chamfer
3.Sweep 14. Draft
4.Loft 15. Spiral
5.Shaft 16. Spring
6.Pipe 17. Thread
7.Boss
8.Cut
9.Slot
10.Shell
11.Fillet
EXTRUDE
Extrude model is solid model of the object with uniform
thickness.
It requires a sketch and an extrusion vector. The extrusion
vector is always perpendicular to the plane of sketch.
REVOLVE
Resolve feature is used to create axis symmetric objects.
It require a sketch and a revolution vector
SWEEP
Sweep feature sweep a
sketch or cross
section along a guide
curve .
It require a sketch and a
guide curve .
Linear sweep- guide
curve is straight line.

Non-Linear sweep- guide

curve is any curve
other than straight
line.
LOFT
Loft is a generalization of sweep .Loft blends multiple cross sections
along a guide curve Types- linear and non linear.
1.Linear loft- Linear loft ,guide curve is a straight line .
2. Non Linear loft – guide curve is any curve other than straight line
BOSS
Boss is an addition of an extrude or revolved
feature to a base feature.
CUT
CUT is the subtraction of an extruded or
revolved feature from a base feature
SLOT
Slot is subtraction of an extruded feature
from a solid or a base feature
SHELL

Shell feature is used

to create a thin
walled hollow solid.
Fillet - Fillet feature
is used to round
off or smoothen
the sharp corners
and edges of the
solids.
 Chamfer – chamfer feature
is used to remove sharp
edges and corners from the
solid by creating beveled
edges.

Draft - Draft feature is

used to create a taper on
the surface of the object.
Input to create draft is face
to be drafted ,draft angle
and neutral angle from
which the draft angle is
measured.
Spiral – spiral feature is
used to create spiral
springs.
Input parameter for
spiral operation are : a
profile to sweep and
sweeping helix curve.

Spring -Spring Feature

is used to create
helical springs.
Input parameter for
spring operation are
profile to sweep and
sweeping helix.
PRIMITIVE INSTANCING
This technique is used to define
families of object ,which is called
generic primitive.
The primitive are defined in term of a
parameter group for e.g a block
primitive is defined by parameter ;
height(h) ,width(w),and depth(D).
By inputting the values of parameter
defining the primitive ,model can
be generated.
In addition to basic primitives ,the
library of generic primitives
(shapes) which are commonly
used is created.
The generic primitive called from
library by its assigned name and
it can be created by inputting the
values of parameters.
CONSTRAINT BASED MODELING
 A constraint is defined as the geometric condition that
relates two or more entities of model.

 In constrain based modeling ,the designer can add certain

constrains in modeling .for e.g. adding the constraint of
the symmetry to the modeling allows the designer to
modify the part of the model on one side of the
symmetrical axis, then the part of the model on other
side of the symmetrical axis gets modified automatically.
Various constraint are –
Coincident,collinear,concetric,horizontal
,vertical,midpoint,parallel,perpendicular,tangent,symmetry
SOLID MODELING BASED APPLICATION
1. Graphics – solid models can be used to generate
automatically the orthographic view of the object.
It can also be converted into wire-frame models.

2. Design and analysis -

Solid models are used for automatic mass property
calculations .
Other design and analysis applications of solid
model include : finite element analysis, kinematic
analysis, dynamic analysis,
3. Manufacturing- most significance application
of the solid models in this group is the
automatic tool path generation and verification
,dimension inspection.
4. Inspection and testing : solid model is used in
computer aided inspection (CAI) and computer
aided testing.