Pressure Measurement

Pressure is defined as the force exerted

perpendicularly by the fluid on a unit area of
any bounding surface
• In chemical industries, we will be conducting the operations at low pre, medium
pre. Or high pre.
• low pressure - < 1mm Hg and Vaccum
• Medium Pressure – 10 mm Hg to 600 Kg/cm2
• High pressure – 650 to 16500 Kg/cm2
• Direct Measurement – displacement is caused by action of force- manometers
• Indirect method – by measuring other properties such as volume, electrical
resistance etc – Ionization guage, Mc-Leod guage etc
Static/ dynamic/ impact pressure
 MANOMETERS
• One of the oldest means for the measurement of pressure.
• Liquid column manometer is the commonly used type.
• Manometers are the simpler, most direct and most accurate of all pressure
measuring means.
• Normally limited to measurement of differential pressure less than 30 psi.
 1.U TUBE MANOMETER
• In this type, U shaped glass tubes partially filled with a liquid such as
mercury, oil or water.
• The range of U tube manometer is from 100 Pa to 10^6 Pa.
• Source of error- difficult to read the meniscus level.
U TUBE MANOMETER
• If the legs of U tube are vertical, for static balance the equation is

P-P0 = ρ g h

P= Pressure to be measured
P0=Known pressure
ρ = Density of Manometric Liquid
h= Difference in level
g=Acceleration due to gravity
• When the fluid over the manometer liquid is of appreciable density,
then the additional head must be taken into account. Then the
equation for static balance is

P-P0=hρ-Hσ

H = Head of liquid over manometer

σ= Density of liquid over manometer
 U tube manometer can be used for the
measurement of
• Differential pressure (If both the limbs are connected to two different pressure
sources such as P 1 and P 2 - measuring differential pressure)
• Gauge pressure- (If one limb is open to atmosphere and another limb is
connected to the pressure source -measuring gauge pressure)
• Absolute pressure –(if one limb is connected to vacuum, and other end is
connected to pressure source- this is measuring absolute pressure.)
• Vacuum -(If one limb is open to atmosphere and another limb is connected to the
vacuum -measuring vacuum pressure)
 Properties of manometer fluid
• Manometer fluid should:
• Not wet the wall
• Not absorb gas
• Not react chemically with the fluid whose pressure is being measured
• Have low vapor pressure.- for high v.p- loss of liquid may happen
• Move freely
 2.ENLARGED LEG MANOMETER

• In this type, one of the two legs is enlarged. So the areas of

the two limbs will be different.
• It provides a means for obtaining an indication of the pressure
as well as a means of changing the span of the measurement.
• So the enlarged leg manometer is used in recording type
manometers.
• Areas of both legs can be changed to provide for different span
of measured pressure.
ENLARGED LEG MANOMETER
• The equation for static balance is

P2-P1= ρ[1+ A2/A1]d

P2= Pressure to be measured (High pressure)

P1= Known pressure (Low pressure)
A2=Area of enlarged leg
A1=Area of other leg
d=Displacement from the zero line
 3.WELL TYPE MANOMETER

• The well manometer is a variation of enlarged leg manometer.

• It consists of a very large diameter vessel (well) connected to
one side by a very small size tube.
• The advantage of this type of manometer is that the head can
be read directly on a single scale instead of subtracting two
distance readings as in the U tube manometer.
• It can measure upto pressure of 250 Psig.
WELL TYPE MANOMETER
• The equation for static balance is
A2 h’ = A1 h —vol. balance
h’ = A1/A2 h; P2-P1= ρg (h + h′)
P2-P1= ρg (1 + A1/A2 )h
h d = h′ D
P2-P1 = ρg h(1+d/D)
ρ=density of mercury
h=Head of liquid in the leg from reference line
h′=Distance between liquid and reference line in well
D=Diameter of the well
If D ≥ d (of the order 500 to 1)then variations in the level of
well can be neglected.
 4.INCLINED TYPE MANOMETER

• The inclined type or inclined tube manometer is a variation of

well type manometer.
• In this type of manometer an inclined tube is provided with the
well.
• The purpose of the inclined leg is to expand the scale so that
lower pressure differentials can be read more easily.
• Maximum pressure it can read is about 350 Psig.
• Inclined manometers can measure low pressures.
• The low pressure arm is inclined so that the fluid has a longer
distance to travel than in a vertical tube for the same pressure
change. This gives a magnified scale and thus increases sensitivity
of the manometer.
• The angle of inclination is usually of the order of 10 degree
• The scale of the instrument can be greatly expanded by
reducing angle of inclination to a small value.
INCLINED TYPE MANOMETER
INCLINED TYPE MANOMETER
• The equation for static balance is
P2 –P1 = ρg(1+A1/A2) Rm
= ρg(1+A1/A2) R1 sin α
If A1/A2 is very small,
P2-P1 = ρg R1 sin α

A2=Area of well
A1=Area of inclined tube
d=Distance along the tube through which level
moves
α= Angle of inclination
Rm = Level change in large limb
R1 = level change in small limb
 5. Air micromanometer
• Air – working fluid
• Principle- to nullify the unknown pressure by amplifying reference pressure
by centrifugal force
• Atomized oil droplets is sprayed through a capillary tube.
• Its path is affected by unknown pressure.
• Disc speed is adjusted till the reference pressure just balances the unknown
pressure
 6. Prandtl Type Manometer
• Minimizes the capillary and meniscus errors.
• Parts- reservoir, flexible tubing, inclined transparent tube.
• Reservoir and tube can be moved by a precision level screw arrangement till
the fluid level falls inside the scribed marks.
• As the mercury level here goes up or comes down depending on these two different
pressures in the two limbs, the float goes up or comes down.
• This moment of the float can be used to move a pointer against this scale which can
be directly calibrated in units of pressure so that we can measure the difference
between these two pressures.
• So, that way this mercury float manometer can be used to measure differential
pressure.
• The span of the measurement can be changed by changing the diameter of the leg..
Large float can be placed to generate enough force so that the pointer and scale
movement is possible.
 7.KENETOMETER

• Kenetometer is a manometric device used for the measurement

of vacuum, such as in condenser.
• It consists of a long thin tube A which is connected to bulb B.
• The bulb through the tubing is connected to the vacuum source.
• The tube A is sealed at the top and is completely evacuated so
that it is filled with mercury when the condenser is at the
atmospheric pressure.
• The limb of the kenetometer which has to be connected to the
condenser is connected only through certain refinements such
as driers and traps.
• Measuring vacuum correctly depends on accuracy of the
apparatus or other arrangements for sensing the internal
pressure.
KENETOMETER
 Bourdon gauge (Elastic element type
pressure gauge)
• Consists of a tube with elliptical cross
section and bent in the form of
English letters C.
• One end of the tube is rigidly fixed to
a stationary socket and which is
connected to the pressure connection.
• The other end of the bourdon tube is
sealed, known as tip of the bourdon
tube, is connected to link
• The link is connected to sector and
pinion, have a pointer attached.
• So, the pointer is attached to the tip of the bourdon tube through this link and sector and pinion.
• Also it contains a gear and a very fine spring known as hair spring.
• The C shaped bourdon tube has a hollow, elliptical cross section. It is closed at 1 end and the fluid
pressure is applied at the other end.
• So, when pressure is applied, its cross section becomes more circular, causing the tube to straighten
out until the force of the fluid pressure is balanced by elastic resistance of the tube material.
• the displacement of the tip of the bourdon tube is a measure of the amount of pressure that is
being applied inside the bourdon tube.
• A pointer is attached to the closed end of the tube through a linkage arm and a gear and pinion
assembly, which rotates the pointer around the graduated scale.
Spiral/helical tubes
Differential pressure measurement
 Application
• Eugene bourdon of France, invented bourdon tube in 1849.
• Bourdon tube pressure gages find wide range of application-
• It provides consistent inexpensive measurement of static pressure in
industries and laboratories.
• It usually measure gauge pressure of both gaseous and liquid fluids.
• It is also possible to measure differential pressure using bourdon tubes.
• Bronze- up to 600 psi
• Beryllium copper – 10,000 psi
• Alloy steel – 20,000 psi
 Elastic (Mechanical) pressure transducers-
Bellow Pressure gauges
• A bellows element is a one piece expansible collapsible and axially flexible member.
• Bellows are essentially thin walled cylindrical shells with deep convolutions and are
sealed at one end.
• The sealed end will undergo axial displacement when pressure is applied at the open
end.
• Bellows are made of materials with good elastic property such as brass, phosphor
bronze, beryllium copper etc.
• Stainless steel although not highly elastic is also sometimes used for it is anti-
corrosive property. Carbon steel is easily corroded and difficult to machine, so
avoided.
• Bellows are used for measuring low pressures, nominal range is 5 inch of
water to 100 psi. This is an indicative range.
• Spring can be used inside the bellows to add to elasticity and also to
determine the range.
• Bellows are more sensitive than bourdon gauges.
• Bellows can be used to measure differential pressure and absolute pressure if,
one of the bellow is sealed and evacuated.
 Diaphragm gauge
• Diaphragm is a flexible disk usually with concentric corrugations.
• A diaphragm converts pressure to deflection. This is similar to bourdon tube
as well as bellows elements. So, bourdon tubes, bellows, elements diaphragm
all convert pressures to displacement of deflection.
• Diaphragm pressure gauge is a based on the deflection of a flexible
membrane, that separates regions of different pressures.
• The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in
pressure between its 2 faces. The amount of deflection is repeatable for
known-pressures
 Types of Diaphragm gauge
• Diaphragm can be of 2 types, metallic diaphragm and non-metallic diaphragm.
• Metallic diaphragms are made of thin metals and non-metallic diaphragms are made of
other elastic membranes, such as teflon, leather etc.
• Metallic diaphragm are made of metals, we can choose metals with good elastic
property, such as phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, monel, etc.
• Non-metallic diaphragm does not have so good elastic properties. So, non-metallic
diaphragms are generally spring loaded to add elasticity to it.
• A metal diaphragm pressure gauge uses a thin flexible diaphragm of materials like
brass, phosphor, bronze, beryllium, copper, monel, hastelloy, nickel span c, titanium,
tantalum, stainless steel etc.
• The force of the pressure against the effective area of the diaphragm causes the
deflection of the diaphragm.
• The motion of the diaphragm is a measure of pressure, and the motion of
diaphragm operates an indicating or recording type instruments.
• So, we can not only attach a pointer and scale with the diaphragm to read it is
deflection, we can also attach a pin so that we can record the readings.
• So, the deflection can be actuated the movement of a pointer against the scale,
similarly the deflection can be used to actuate the movement of a pin against a
paper. In that case we will have a written record of the pressures.
• The minimum range for pressure measurement is 0- 0.2 inch of water, and the
maximum range is thousand psig
Electrical pressure transducers
• A transducer element usually gives us electrical signal as output and it
becomes very convenient for the purpose of measurement.
• Electromechanical transducers, which receives displacement as input and
gives us an electrical signal as output.
• Pressure sensing element such as a bellow , a diaphragm or a bourdon tube is
used as primary sensing element.
• Primary conversion element- Transducers
• If we combine an elastic pressure element(bourdon tube/ diaphragm etc)
with electromechanical transducers (strain gauges) will give electrical pressure
transducers.
 Types of EPT
• Passive type- Requires an auxiliary electrical o/p which modifies as a
function of mechanical displacement
1. Strain gauges
2. Inductive gauges
• Active type – generates its own electrical o/p as a function of mechanical
displacement
1. Piezoelectric manometers
 Why Electrical Pressure Transducers?
• Transmission requirements for remote display, as electric signal
transmission can be through cable or cordless.
• Electric signals give quicker responses and high accuracy in digital
measurements.
• The linearity property of the electric signal produced to pressure applied
favors simplicity.
• They can be used for extreme pressure applications, i.e. high vacuum
and pressure measurements.
• EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and mechanical vibrations.
 Strain gauges
• A strain gauge is a passive type
resistance pressure transducer
(wire) whose electrical resistance
changes when it is stretched or
compressed (as its dimension
changes)
 • Strain gauge pressure transducers are used for
narrow pressure span and for differential
pressure measurments.
• Available for pressure ranges as low as 3
inches of water to as high as 200,000 psig
Unbonded EPT
• Inaccuracy ranges from 0.1 % of span to 0.25
% of full scale
• Two types – bonded and unbonded
• Unbonded- Sensing element made of
diaphragm/bellow and a beam. Thin film
strain gauge located on beam
• Bonded - Sensing element is diaphragm.
Strain gauges are bonded directly to the
diaphragm. Involves the use of adhesives
 • Consists of two E shaped magnetic
pieces placed equally around a
diaphragm.
Inductive EPT • Two coils are wound around these
pieces.
• When pressure difference exists, the
flexing of the diaphragm, causes it to
move toward one pole piece & away from
other, there by altering relative
inductances.
• The coils are used in inductive bridge
circuit, o/p of which is measured and
calibrated in terms of pressure
• Range – 0 to 6 kg/cm2
 • When a pressure , force or acceleration is applied to a
Piezo Electric Gauges quartz crystal , a charge is developed across the crystal
that is proportional to the force applied
• q=kF
• q= charge developed
• F=applied force
• k= piezoelectric const
2.1* 10^-9 cm/kg
• Signals generated by crystals decays rapidly so unsuitable
for static force or pressure measurements- Disadvantage
• Very suitable to measure rapidly changing pressure
resulting from blasts, explosions or pulsation pressures-
Advantage
• Range : 5,000 to 10,000 kg/cm2
• Rugged construction, small size and high speed
 High vacuum measurement
• Low pressure measurement by conventional gauges.

• Where 1 Torr= 1 mm of Hg
• Beyond this, we need to use specialized instruments
Instruments for measuring high vacuum
 MC.LEOD GAUGE

• McLeod gauge is used for the measurement of very low

pressure of about 0.01 micron of Hg.
• Indirect or inferential method of measurement.
• The pressure of any gas is calculated by the Boyle’s law
P1V1=P2V2 in this gauge.
• This type of gauge is generally used as a primary standard for
the measurement of high vacuum.
MCLEOD GAUGE
 WORKING

• The unknown pressure source is connected to the gauge at point P.

• The mercury level is adjusted so that the unknown pressure fills up the bulb B and
capillary C.
• When the mercury level is at the cut off point then a known standard volume of gas
is trapped in the bulb and capillary.
• The mercury level is then raised by the piston mechanism to reach zero reference
point in the reference column R.
• The volume remaining in the capillary is read directly from the scale.
• The difference in heights of the two columns is the measure of the trapped
pressure.
 EQUATION

• Since the entire process is isothermal, By Boyle’s law

P1V1=P2V2
P2=P1+h and V2 = ah; V1= V+ahc
P1V1 =(P1+h)ah where a is the area of capillary
P1V1 =P1ah+ah2
P1=ah2/(V1-ah)
As ah<<V1;

P1=ah2/V1
In above equations
• V=Volume of the bulb from the cut off point to the beginning
of the capillary tube above it.
• V1=Initial volume of gas entrapped into apparatus=(V+ahc)
• V2=Volume of gas after compression
• P2=Final amplified pressure
• a=Area of cross section of capillary
• P1=Pressure to be measured
 ADVANTAGES

• McLeod gauge is simpler to use.

• Its calibration is the same for nearly all noncondensable gases.
• With different ranges of instruments ,this gauge is suitable for a total
pressure range from about 0.01 micron to 50 mm of mercury.
• Greater magnification of pressure can be achieved using capillary with
small bore.
 DISADVANTAGES

• The McLeod gauge cannot be used for measuring gases containing

vapours.
• This gauge does not give continuous readings. So steady state conditions
must prevail before taking the readings.
• A few gases that deviate from ideal gas law at low pressure require special
calibration in McLeod gauge
 IONISATION GAUGES
• Basic Principle:An electron passing through a potential difference will
acquire a kinetic energy that is proportional to the potential difference
through which the electron is passing.
• If this energy is large, an electron strikes a gas molecule, there is a possibility
that the electron may knock out a secondary electron from the gas molecule;
and in that case, the gas molecule will be converted to a positively charged
ion.
• Number of positive ions formed is dependent on the number of gas
molecules per unit volume and number of gas molecules per unit volume is a
measure of pressure.
• But if we can keep the number of electrons passing through constant, then
the number of positive ions will depend on the number of gas molecules
present in the chamber.
• The pressure or vacuum can be measured by measuring the current produced
by the ionized gas molecules.
• This current will be very small amount current, so amplification will be
required for purpose of measurement.
• Indirect or Inferential method of pressure measurement.
• For measurement of pressures as low as 10-6 micron.
• Maximum pressure it can measure is about 1 micron.
• Pressure measurement is similar to ordinary triode electronic tube.
 COMPONENTS

• Envelope – It is evacuated by the pressure to be measured

• Heated filament
• Positively biased grid
• Negatively biased plate(Collector)
PRINCIPLE OF IONISATION GAUGE
 WORKING

• The grid draws electrons from the heated filament.

• The collision between the electrons and gas molecules causes
ionisation of the molecules.
• The positively charged molecules are attracted to the
negatively charged plate causing a current flow in the circuit.
• This current is directly calibrated in terms of pressure medium
inside the tube .
• The amount of ion current is proportional to the amount of gas
present
 ADVANTAGES

• For measurement of pressures as low as 10-6 micron to a maximum of 1

micron can be measured using ionisation gauge.
• Low pressures can be continuously measured using this gauge.
• This gauge can be calibrated for various inert gases.
 DISADVANTAGES

• There is a possibility of burning out of filament at high

pressure
• It is not reliable for gases like oxygen, hydrogen, carbon
dioxide that are decomposed at the hot filament.
 COMPARISON

MCLEOD GAUGE IONISATION GAUGE

1.Pressure is determined 1.Pressure is determined

through volume through ion current
2.Boyle’s law is used as 2.Principle of thermionic
working principle. emission is used.
3.Pressure range is from 3.Pressure range is from
0.01micron to 50 mm 0.000001 micron to 1
of mercury. micron of mercury.
4.Continuous readings 4.Continuous readings
cannot be taken. can be taken.
MCLEOD GAUGE IONISATION GAUGE
5.Gases containing 5.Gases which
vapours cannot be decompose at high
used. temperature cannot
be used.
 Thermal conductivity gauge
• Thermal conductivity gauge depends on the variation of thermal
conductivity of the gas with variation of pressure.
• Ordinarily at normal pressures, thermal conductivity is independent of gas
pressure.
• Now, at very low pressures, thermal conductivity of the gas does depend on
the pressure (decreases with pressure).
• So, we make use of this principle to design thermal conductivity gauges.
 Thermal conductivity gauge
• 3 different types are available
• Thermocouple gauge
• Pirani gauge
• Thermistor gauge.
 Thermal conductivity gauge- working
principle
• When the pressure of a gas is low enough, so that the mean free
path of gas molecules is large compared with the relevant
dimension of the gauge, the pressure of a gas becomes dependent
on its thermal conductivity.
• Filament which can be heated by supply of some energy., and this
is kept within a glass chamber; and to that glass chamber,
connected to the gas source whose pressure is going to measure.
• The filament which is being heated by a supply of constant
energy input, and the glass tube will work as a cold surface.
• There will be heat exchange between this hot filament and this
cold surface.
 Working principle contd..
• Thermal equilibrium will be established when the heat input to the filament which is
coming from the constant energy source is equal to the heat loss due to conduction,
convection and radiation.
• Convection is considered very negligible here. The heat loss is occurring mainly due to
conduction and radiation.
• Among these two, the conductive heat loss will depend on the gas pressure.
• The temperature that the filament will assume when equilibrium is reached will have a
relationship with the thermal conductivity of the gas.
• So, we can measure the temperature of the hot filament using a thermocouple or by
using wheatstone’s bridge
Characterstics of thermal conductivity
gauge
 Thermocouple gauge
• It is simply consists of a glass tube to
which the gas pressure will be admitted.
• And inside the tube, mounted a thin metal
strip, which will work as a hot surface.
• It will be heated up by sending current
through it.
• And then we measure the temperature of
the hot surface by using a thermocouple.
 Pirani gauge
• Pirani gauge uses the same principle as thermocouple gauge.
• The resistance element in a Pirani gauge is a four-coiled tungsten or platinum or nickel wire
supported inside a glass tube through which the gas is admitted.
• Current flowing through the heating element heats it to a temperature depending on the gas
pressure, because gas pressure will determine the thermal conductivity of the gas. The
resistance of the element changes with the temperature and this change in resistance causes a
bridge unbalance.
• So, the change in resistance can be measured by Wheatstone bridge principle.
•
• Initially, we need to establish the null point, and then due to change in
temperature resistance of the filament changes, so that causes a bridge to go
unbalanced. Thus, the bridge unbalance current is a measure of the gas
pressure.
• So, here the function of heating and measuring temperature are combined in
the single element. So, we can heat the filament by sending current through
it, and also measuring the change in resistance by the Wheatstone bridge
principle.
• So, in the Wheatstone bridge in one arm, attach this tungsten or platinum or
nickel wire which works as a Pirani gauge. So, the function of heating and
measuring temperature are combined in a single element.
 Pirani gauge
• Unlike thermocouple gauges, Pirani gages do not measure
the wire temperature directly.
• Instead they use the fact that the resistance of a
conducting wire changes with the wire’s temperature.
• Pirani gauges are generally more accurate than
thermocouple gage, but it is also more expensive than
thermocouple gauge that is why in corrosive or dirty
environment, thermocouple gauge is preferred over Pirani
gage.
• Again the range is 10-4 to 1 Torr.
• Gauge has to be calibrated for individual gas, because
thermal conductivity is a function of the gas. So, different
gases will have different thermal conductivity.
• Calibration is non-linear.
 Pirani gauge

• Gauge has to be calibrated for

individual gas, because thermal
conductivity is a function of the gas.
• So, different gases will have
different thermal conductivity.
• Calibration is non-linear.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Pirani
gauge
• Advantages of Pirani gauge
• They are rugged and inexpensive
• Give accurate results
• Good response to pressure changes.
• Relation between pressure and
resistance is linear for the range of use.
• Readings can be taken from a distance.
• Limitations of Piranigauge
• Piranigauge must be checked
frequently.
• Pirani gauge must be calibrated for
different gases.
• Electric power is a must for its
operation.
 Thermistor gauge
• The thermistor gage operates on identical principles to the Pirani gauge. So, the
working principle is same as Pirani gauge.
• A Pirani gage uses hot filaments made of tungsten wire or platinum wire or nickel
wire; whereas, thermistor gage uses semiconductor(mixture of metallic oxides such as
Mn, Ni, Co, Cu and Fe, which exhibits a large change in resistance proportional to a
small change in temperature.) material instead of these metals.
• So, the difference lies in the material of construction of the filament or hot surface.
Again the
• Normal pressure range is 10 -4 to 1 Torr.
 Knudsen gauge
• There are two fixed plates
mounted within a chamber and in
between these two fixed plates,
there is a spring restrained movable
vane.
• So, the movable vane can show
some angular motion between two
fixed plates.
 Knudsen gauge
• Now, this two fixed plates are heated up to an exactly known temperature,
and the movable vane’s temperature is different from this.
• The temperature of the moveable vane is lower than the temperature of the
two fixed plates.
• Now we apply vacuum; that means, connect this chamber to the vacuum
source.
• So, the gas is admitted to the chamber; now gas near the hot plate will have
higher temperature, than the gas near the colder vane because fixed plates are
already heated.
 Knudsen gauge
• Gas molecules rebound from the heated plates with greater momentum than from the
cooler movable vane, this gives a net force on the spring restricted movable vane.
• The force can be measured by the deflection of the movable vane.
• The gap between the fixed plates and the movable vanes must be less than mean free
path of the gas molecules, this is very important.
• Because of this condition we cannot use this instrument for the measurement of
higher pressure; because the condition that the gap between the fixed plates will be
smaller than the mean free path of gas molecules can be met only at very low
pressures, because at low pressures the mean free path of the gas molecules will be
lager compared to the condition at higher pressures
 Knudsen gauge
• Range- 10-8 torr to 10-3 torr
• Working is independent of gas
composition.
• More suitable for laboratories.
• Depends on momentum transfer
principle.
 Radioactive vacuum gauge
• Principle- Current flowing through an ionization chamber depends on the
pressure/ density of the gas.
• Used for low pressure measurement.
• Instrument is gas specific.
Equipment:
• Air tight casing.
• Ionization chamber.
• Pressure source.
• Radio active source.
• Collector
• A d.c. source
• Amplifier and indicator.
 Working:

• Ionization chamber is connected to the pressure source and a d.c. source.

• Gas is irradiated by alpha particles.
• Collector is given negative potential and attracts the ion current.
• The ion current is amplified and measured.
• To achieve linear relationship between ion current and pressure, no. of
ions formed should vary linearly with the density of gas.
• This is achieved by choosing the dimension of the chamber.
 Conditions :

• Linear dimension of the chamber are less α = dist. of free passage of α particle at
than the distance the alpha particles travel normal pressure.
when at maximum pressure. R= range in air.
• This is satisfied when
A & ρ = av. atomic weight & density of
Av. linear dimension, L = 760 – 0.015α substance
Pm Pm = max. measurable pressure.
where α = 3.2 x 10-4 R A1/2
ρ
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
• Vacuum measurement
• Linear relationship is obtained by
choosing the dimension of the gas
chamber
• Continuous measurement of
pressure.
Disadvantages
• Radioactive source is harmful.
• It is expensive.
• Instrument is gas specific.
• Dimensions of the chamber should
be calculated and constructed
carefully
 Applications:

Used in almost all vacuum processes.

• Pressure measurement in vacuum coating, semiconductor manufacture,
food packing etc.
• Freeze drying, molecular distillation etc.
 Level Measurement
• Level measurement is important to monitor as well as measure quantitatively
the liquid content in
• Pressure Vessels, Reservoirs, Tanks
• The liquid column height in open channel streams
• Level in fuel tanks of aircrafts
• The liquid level is expressed in terms of length of the liquid column or in
terms of the pressure the column exerts over a datum level.
 Methods of level Measurement
• Two methods are generally used in industries for measuring liquid level.
These are
• Direct Method
• Indirect Method
 Direct Method
• This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level where the level is
measured directly by means of the following liquid level indicators
• Hook Type Level Indicator
• Sight Glass Level Indicator
• Float Type Level Indicator
 Sight Glass
• A sight glass (also called as gauge glass) is used for the continuous indication
of liquid level within a tank or vessel.
• A sight glass instrument consists of a graduated tube of toughened glass
which is connected to the interior of the tank at the bottom in which the
liquid level is required.
• As the level of the liquid in the tank rises and falls, the level in the sight glass
also rises and falls accordingly.
• Thus, by measuring the level in the sight glass the level of liquid in the tank is
measured.
Fig. in the R.H.S shows a high pressure sightglass in which measurement is
made by reading the position of the liquid level on the calibrated
scale.
This type of sightglass in high pressure tanks is used with appropriate safety
precautions. The glasstube must have a small inside diameter and a thick wall.
 Ranges
• The standard practice is not to go for a glass tube of more than 900 mm
length.
• Two or more sight level gauges are provided at different levels if the height
of the tank is more than 900 mm.
• This gauge is made to withstand pressures of 350 psi of steam pressure at
252ºC or 1000 psi of liquid pressures.
 Advantages
• Direct reading is possible
• Special designs are available for use up to 316ºC and 10000 psi.
• Glass less designs are available in numerous materials for corrosion
resistance.
 Disadvantages
• Readings are noted where the tank is located which is not always convenient
• Since sight glasses are located on the outside the tanks, the liquid in the sight
glass may freeze in cold weather even though the liquid inside the tank does
not, and thus, it may cause error in the reading
• Heavy, viscous liquids or liquids containing material which fall out of
solution and clog the tube cannot be measured satisfactorily by a sight glass
• Overlapping gauges needed for long level spans
• Accuracy and readability depend on cleanliness of glass and fluid
 Materials of construction
• Simple glass or plastic material is used up to 30kg/cm² pressure and
200ºC temperature.
• A reflex type design where the tube is metal casting with a thick glass
material is used up to 36kg/cm² pressure and 550ºc temperature.
 Float Actuated Level Indicator
• In this the float rests on the surface
of liquid and follows the changing
level of liquid.
• The movement of the float is
transmitted to a pointer through a
suitable mechanism which indicates
the level on a calibrated scale.
 Construction
• It consists of a float made of stainless steel or copper or phosphor bronze
with nickel plating to avoid rusting which rests over the surface of the liquid
• The float movement is transmitted to the pointer by a stainless steel or
phosphor bronze flexible cable wound around a pulley, and the pointer
indicates liquid level.
 Types of floats
• The design of float is very important hence floats of
• the following shapes are used
• • Hollow metal spheres
• • Cylindrical shaped float
• • Disc shaped floats.
 Working
• When the liquid level rises or falls a buoyant force equal to weight of the
displaced liquid is available.
• It pushes the float up or down.
• The float movement is transmitted to a pointer through a suitable
mechanism
• It indicates the level on a calibrated scale
 Advantages and Disdvantages

Advantages Disdvantages
• Economical • Limited to moderate pressures
• Reliable designs • Float design should be considered
• It is possible to read the liquid for liquids with suspensions
levels in tanks below ground level
• Operated at large temperature
ranges
 HOOK-TYPE LEVEL INDICATOR
• When the level of liquid in an open
tank is measured directly on a scale
(the scale may be in the liquid or
outside it), it is sometimes difficult
to read the level accurately because
of parallax error.
• In this case a hook type of level
indicator is used.
 Construction
• Hook-type level indicator consists of a wire of corrosion resisting alloy (such
as stainless steel) about ¼ in (0.063 mm) diameter. Bent into U-Shape with
one arm longer than the other as shown in Fig.
• The shorter arm is pointed with a °60 taper. While the longer one is attached
to a slider having a Vernier scale. Which moves over the main scale and
indicates the level.
 Working
• In hook-type level indicator, the hook is pushed below the surface of liquid
whose level is to be measured and gradually raised until the point is just
about to break through the surface.
• It is then clamped, and the level is read on the scale.
• This principle is further utilized in the measuring point manometer in which
the measuring point consists of a steel point fixed with the point upwards
underneath the water surface.
 Indirect type
• Differential pressure method for pressurized vessels
• Used for continuous level measurement
• Measurement of level in industrial application by differential pressure transmitter is
frequent.
• Any liquid that occupies a vessel / vessel / tank, will have a hydrostatic pressure in
proportion to the level of the liquid, with assume densities (sg = specific gravity).
• The DP Transmitter device is used to measure level as an inferential measurement. In
a DP Transmitter, the diaphragm senses the head pressure developed by the height of
the material in the vessel.
•
• The DP transmitter have inbuilt pressure sensors like Diaphragm, capsules,
strain gauges etc to measure the differential pressure.
• The pressure sensor converts the measured pressure into parameters like
millivolts, capacitance, resistance etc depending on the type of pressure
sensor we are using inside the DP transmitter.
• Generally a Wheatstone bridge will be used to convert resistance,
capaciatance or inducatance type of pressure sensor outputs into electrical
signal like millivolts or volts which is proportional to the pressure, then
transmitter converts the pressure into equivalent Level Signal accordingly.
Open and closed level measurement
 Advantages
• A great specificity of Differential Pressure Transmitters is that it is
effortlessly fitted to an existing vessel. It can also be retrofitted to a working
Tank or Vessel.
• Maintenance of DP Transmitter is easy as it can be isolated from the process
by isolation valve. It is ideal and may be the only alternative for total level
measurement in separator vessels, because separator vessel undergoes a wide
variation of composition in process materials.
• DP transmitters are ideal for level measurements of liquids. It can also be
used for light slurries with extended diaphragm, which fits flush, to one side
of the vessel.
 Advantages contd..
• Level measurement by DP Transmitters is more cost effective than other
available sensors.
• A broad range of accurate level can be measured by differential pressure
transmitters subject to the stability of the fluid density. In case of unstable
process fluid density, an extra DP Transmitter is used to estimate the density.
• Since DP Transmitters are located away from the tank for measurement of
level, cleaning and maintenance of Tanks are easy.
• Accumulation of water at the bottom of a tank can be ascertained by
Differential Pressure Transmitters.
•
 Disdvantages
• The main disadvantage is that the head developed is not sufficient to meet
up the line losses as well as for a satisfactory indication. Hence ranges are
quite limited.
 Conductivity meter
• The conductance method of liquid level measurement is based on the
electrical conductance of the measured material, which is usually a liquid that
can conduct a current with a low-voltage source (normally <20 V).
• Hence the method is also referred to as a conductivity system.
• Conductance is a relatively low-cost, simple method to detect and control
level in a vessel.
• One common way to set up an electrical circuit is to use a dual-tip probe that
eliminates the need for grounding a metal tank.
• Such probes are generally used for point level detection, and the detected point can
be the interface between a conductive and nonconductive liquid.
• Figure shows an arrangement with two dual-tip probes that detect maximum and
minimum levels.
• When the level reaches the upper probe, a switch closes to start the discharge pump;
when the level reaches the lower probe, the switch opens to stop the pump.
• Figure shows an arrangement with two
dual-tip probes that detect maximum
and minimum levels.
• When the level reaches the upper
probe, a switch closes to start the
discharge pump;
• When the level reaches the lower
probe, the switch opens to stop the
pump