Lecture 3 - Signal and System Modelling

ENT 281
Signal and Systems

Lecture 3
Signal and Systems Modeling Concepts
(Part 2)
Dr. Abdul Halim Ismail

1
Semester 1, 2017/2018 Session
Contents
4 Elementary Signals
4.1 Step Function
4.2 Ramped Function
4.3 Impulse Function
4.4 Exponential Signal
4.5 Sinusoidal Signal
5 System Block Diagram
6 Properties of the System

6.1 Stability
6.2 Memory
6.3 Causality
6.4 Inevitability
6.5 Time Invariance
6.6 Linearity
School of Mechatronic Engineering

2
Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP)
Contents
4.1 Step Function
4.2 Ramped Function

6.1 Stability
6.2 Memory
6.3 Causality
6.4 Inevitability
6.5 Time Invariance
6.6 Linearity

3
Elementary Signals
The signals appear naturally in a wide class of physical

systems.
They serve as basic building blocks for the construction
of more complex signal.
-The Unit Step Function
-The Ramp Function
-The unit Impulse Function
-Exponential signals
-Sinusoidal Signals

4
Elementary Signals
Unit Step Function
The continuous-time version of the unit-step defined by:
u(t )  
1, t  0
0, t  0

5
Elementary Signals
Unit Step Function (Signal Example 1)
The rectangular pulse signal shown in Figure below is the result of an on-
off switching operation of a constant voltage source in an electric circuit.
In general, a rectangular pulse that extends from –a to +a and has
magnitude A can be written as a difference between appropriately
shifted step function, i.e.,
𝑡
𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝐴[𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑎 ]
2𝑎
In this specific example,
𝑡
2 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 2[𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 ]
2

6
Elementary Signals
Unit Step Function (Signal Example 2)
Consider the signum function (written sgn) shown in figure

below. The unit sgn function is defined by
1, 𝑡>0
sgn 𝑡 = ቐ 0, 𝑡=0
−1, 𝑡<0
The signum function can be expressed in terms of unit the
unit step function as,
𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑡 = −1 + 2𝑢(𝑡)

7
Elementary Signals
Unit Step Function (DTS)
The discrete-time version of the unit-step defined by:
u[n ]   1, n  0
0, n  0
x[n]
n
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

8
Elementary Signals
Ramp Function (CTS)
• The continuous-time ramp function is defined as:

 t, t  0
r (t )   or r (t )  tu (t )
0, t  0
Ramp function of unit slope.
• The ramp function is obtained by integrating the unit step function:

𝑡
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑟(𝑡)

9
Elementary Signals
Ramp Function (DTS)
• The discrete-time ramp function is defined as:
n, n  0
r[n]   or r[n]  nu[n]
0, n  0
x[n]
n
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Discrete-time version of the ramp function.

10
Elementary Signals
Unit Impulse Function
The discrete-time unit impulse function, also called unit

sample sequence, is defined as:
 [ n]  
1, n  0
0, n  0

11
Elementary Signals
The continuous-time unit impulse function δ(t), also called

Dirac delta function.
It is defined by:
 (t )  0 for t  0
and


 (t )dt  1

12
Elementary Signals
• As the duration decreases, the rectangular pulse approximates

the impulse more closely.
• Mathematical relation between impulse and rectangular pulse
function:
 (t )  lim x (t ) 1. x(t): even function of t,  = duration.
0 2. x(t): Unit area.
(t) a(t)
Figure 1.41 (p. 46)
Discrete-time form of impulse.

13
Elementary Signals
Exponential Signals
A CT real exponential signal has the general formula as:
B and a are real parameters

x(t )  Beat
• The parameter B is the amplitude of exponential measures at t = 0.
• For a = 0, the signal x(t) is constant amplitude for all times.
• For a > 0, the signal is a growing exponential signal
• For a < 0, the signal x(t) is a decaying exponential signal

14
Elementary Signals
Exponential Signals
1. Decaying exponential, for which a < 0

2. Growing exponential, for which a > 0
(a) Decaying exponential form of continuous-time signal.

(b) Growing exponential form of continuous-time signal.
15
Elementary Signals
Exponential Signals : Lossy Capacitor
KVL Eq.:
d
RC v(t )  v(t )  0 (1.32)
dt
RC = Time constant
v(t )  V0 e t /( RC ) (1.33)
Lossy capacitor, with the loss represented by

shunt resistance R.
16
Elementary Signals
Exponential Signals : DTS
Discrete-time case:
x[n]  Br n (1.34) ,where r  e
(a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal. (b) Growing exponential

form of discrete-time signal.

17
Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal Signals
◆ Continuous-time case:
x(t )  A cos(t   ) (1.35)
where
periodicity
x(t  T )  A cos( (t  T )   )
2
T  A cos(t  T   )
  A cos(t  2   )
 A cos(t   )
 x (t )

18
Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal Signals
(a) Sinusoidal signal A cos( t + Φ) with phase Φ = +/6 radians.

(b) Sinusoidal signal A sin ( t + Φ) with phase Φ = +/6 radians.
19
Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal Signals: Generation of Sinusoidal Signal
Circuit Eq.:
d2
LC 2 v(t )  v(t )  0 (1.36)
dt
v(t )  V0 cos(0t ), t  0 (1.37)

Parallel LC circuit, assuming that the
inductor L and capacitor C are both
where ideal.
1
0  (1.38)
LC Natural angular frequency of
oscillation of the circuit

20
Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal Signals: DTS
◆ Discrete-time case :
x[n]  A cos(n   ) (1.39)
Periodic condition: x[n  N ]  A cos(n  N   ) (1.40)
N  2 m or
2 m
 radians/cycle, integer m, N (1.41)
N

21
Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal Signals: DTS
A discrete-time sinusoidal signal: A = 1,  = 0, and N = 12.

22
Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal Signals: DTS Example
Example 1.7 Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal
A pair of sinusoidal signals with a common angular frequency is

defined by
x1[n]  sin[5 n] and x2 [n]  3 cos[5 n]
(a)Both x1[n] and x2[n] are periodic. Find their common fundamental
period.
(b)Express the composite sinusoidal signal
y[n]  x1[n]  x2[n]

In the form y[n] = Acos(n + ), and evaluate the amplitude A and
phase .
23
<Solution>
(a) Angular frequency of both x1[n] and x2[n]:
2 m 2 m 2m
  5 radians/cycle N  
 5 5
This can be only for m = 5, 10, 15, …, which results in N = 2, 4, 6, …
(b) Trigonometric identity:

A cos(n   )  A cos(n)cos( )  Asin(n)sin( )
Let  = 5, then compare x1[n] + x2[n] with the above equation to
obtain that

24
A sin( )  1 and A cos( )  3
sin( ) amplitude of x1[ n] 1
tan( )    =/6
cos( ) amplitude of x2 [n] 3
A sin( )  1
1
A 2
sin   / 6  Accordingly, we may express y[n] as
 
y[n]  2cos  5 n  
 6

25
Consider the complex exponential 𝒆𝒋𝜽 . Using Euler’s identity:
e j  cos  j sin 
Complex exponential signal: Be j t
B  Ae j  Ae j e j t
 Ae j (  t )
x(t )  A cos(t   )  A cos( t   )  jA sin( t   )
A cos(t   )  Re{Be jt }

26
1. Continuous-time signal in terms of sine function:
x(t )  A sin(t   )
A sin(t   )  Im{Be jt }
2. Discrete-time case:
A cos(n   )  Re{Be jn } and
A sin(n   )  Im{Be jn }

27
3. Two-dimensional representation of the complex
exponential e j  n for  = /4 and n = 0, 1, 2, …, 7.
Projection on real axis: cos(n);

Projection on imaginary axis: sin(n)
 /4
Complex plane, showing eight  / 4
points uniformly distributed on the
unit circle.

28
Contents
4.1 Step Function
4.2 Ramped Function

6.1 Stability
6.2 Memory
6.3 Causality
6.4 Inevitability
6.5 Time Invariance
6.6 Linearity

29
System Block Diagram
• A system is defined as an entity that acts on an input signal and transforms it
into an output signal.
• A system = is a set of elements or functional blocks which are connected
together and produces an output in response to an signal.
• The response or output of the system depends upon the transfer function of
the system.
• It is a cause-and-effect relation between two or more signals.
Block diagram
representation of a
system.

30
Elements of a Block Diagram
Elements of a communication system block diagram
Feedback of a control system block diagram

31
Case Study: Robotic Arm
Actual robot arm Schematic diagram
Arm Motion simulation

Reference: http://seg.ee.upatras.gr/seg/dev/RoboticArm.htm 32
Case Study: Robotic Arm
The PID based control application block diagram for the control of a
single link of the robotic arm

Reference: http://seg.ee.upatras.gr/seg/dev/RoboticArm.htm 33
Continuous-time and Discrete-time
Example 1.12 Moving-average system
Consider a discrete-time system whose output signal y[n] is the average

of the three most recent values of the input signal x[n], that is
1
y[n]  ( x[n]  x[n  1]  x[n  2])
3
Formulate the operator H for this system; then, develop a block diagram
representation for it.

34
1. Discrete-time-shift operator Sk:
2. Overall operator H for the moving-average system:
1
H  (1  S  S 2 )
3
(a): cascade form; (b): parallel form.

35
Contents
4.1 Step Function
4.2 Ramped Function

6.1 Stability
6.2 Memory
6.3 Causality
6.4 Inevitability
6.5 Time Invariance
6.6 Linearity

36
Properties of the System
Stability
A system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable if
and only if every bounded input results in a bounded output. The
operator H is BIBO stable if the output signal y(t) satisfies the
condition:
y(t )  M y   for all t

Both Mx and
whenever the input signals x(t) satisfy My represent
the condition some finite
positive number
x(t )  M x   for all t
Basically, in everyday words, this definition says that every

“nice” input produces a “nice” output!!!

37
Stability
The collapse of the Tacoma Narrow suspension bridge on 7 Nov. 1940.

38
Stability (Example 1)
Show that the moving-average system described in Example 1.12 is BIBO stable.
1. Assume that: x[n]  M x   for all n

2. Input-output relation:
1
y[n]   x[n]  x[n  1]  x[n  2]
3
1
y[n]  x[n]  x[n  1]  x[n  2]
3
  x[n]  x[n  1]  x[n  2] 
1
3 The moving-average system
is stable.
1
 M x  M x  M x 
3
 Mx

39
Stability (Example 2)
Consider a discrete-time system whose input-output relation is defined by
y[n]  r n x[n]
where r > 1. Show that this system is unstable.
1. Assume that: x[n]  M x   for all n

2. We find that:
y[n]  r n x[n]
 r n  x[n]
With r > 1, the multiplying factor rn diverges for increasing n.
The system is unstable.

40
Memory
• A system is said to possess memory if its output signal depends on past or

future values of the input signal.
• A system is said to possess memoryless if its output signal depends only on

the present values of the input signal.
1 t
Ex.: Inductor i(t )   v( )d Memory !
L 
1
Ex.: Resistor i(t )  v(t ) Memoryless !
R
1
y[n]  ( x[n]  x[n  1]  x[n  2]) Moving Average system. Memory or Memoryless?
3
y[n]  x 2[n] This system. Memory or Memoryless?

41
Causality
From Meriam-Webster dictionary:
Causality: the relation between a cause and its effect or between regularly correlated events
or phenomena
• A system is said to be causal if its present value of the output signal depends
only on the present or past values of the input signal.
• A system is said to be noncausal if its output signal depends on one or more
future values of the input signal.
Ex.: Moving-average system
1
y[n]  ( x[n]  x[n  1]  x[n  2]) Causal !
3
Ex.: Moving-average system
1
y[n]  ( x[n  1]  x[n]  x[n  1]) Noncausal !
3
 A causal system must be capable of operating in real time.

42
Invertibility
• A system is said to be invertible if the input of the system can be recovered

from the output.
1. Continuous-time system:
The notion of system invertibility.
The second operator H inv is the
inverse of the first operator H.
Hence, the input x(t) is passed
through the cascade correction of
x(t) = input; y(t) = output
H and H inv completely unchanged.
H = first system operator;
H inv = second system operator
2. Output of the second system: H inv = inverse operator
H inv  y(t )  H inv H x(t )  H inv H x(t )

43
3. Condition for invertible system:
H inv H  I I = identity operator
Example: Inverse of System

Consider the time-shift system described by the input-output relation
y (t )  x(t  t0 )  S t0 x(t )
where the operator S t0 represents a time shift of t0 seconds. Find the inverse of this system.
Sol.
1. Inverse operator S t 0:
S t0 { y(t )}  S t0 {S t0 {x(t )}}  S t0 S t0 {x(t )}
2. Invertibility condition:
S t0 S t0  I S  t0  Time shift of t0

44
Example: Non-Invertible System
Show that a square-law system described by the input-output relation
y(t )  x2 (t )
is not invertible.
Sol.
Since the distinct inputs x(t) and  x(t) produce the same output y(t).
Accordingly, the square-law system is not invertible.

45
Time Invariance
• A system is said to be time invariance if a time delay or time

advance of the input signal leads to an identical time shift in the
output signal.
 A time-invariance system do not change with time.
The notion of time invariance. (a) Time-shift operator St0 preceding operator
H. (b) Time-shift operator St0 following operator H. These two situations are
equivalent, provided that H is time invariant.

46
Time Invariance
1. Continuous-time system:
y1 (t )  H {x1 (t )}
2. Input signal x1(t) is shifted in time by t0 seconds:
x2 (t )  x1 (t  t0 )  S t0 {x1 (t )} S t 0 = operator of a time shift equal to t0

3. Output of system H:
y2 (t )  H {x1 (t  t0 )}
 H {S t0 {x1 (t )}}
 HS t0 {x1 (t )}
4. For Fig (b), the output of system H is y1(t  t0):
y1 (t  t0 )  S t0 { y1 (t )}
 S t0 {H {x1 (t )}}
 S t0 H {x1 (t )}
5. Condition for time-invariant system: HS t0  S t0 H

47
Example: Inductor y1(t) = i(t)
The inductor shown in figure is described

by the input-output relation: 1 t x1(t) = v(t)
L 
y1 (t )  x1 ( )d
where L is the inductance. Show that the inductor so described is time

invariant.
Solution:
1. Let x1(t) x1(t  t0) Response y2(t) of the inductor to x1(t  t0) is
1 t
L 
y2 (t )  x1 (  t0 )d (A)
2. Let y1(t  t0) = the original output of the inductor, shifted by t0 seconds:
1 t t0
L 
y1 (t  t 0 )  x1 ( )d (B)
3. Changing variables:  '    t0

1 t t0
(A) y2 (t ) 
L 
x1 ( ')d ' Inductor is time invariant.

48
Example: Thermistor
y1(t) = i(t)
Let R(t) denote the resistance of the thermistor,
expressed as a function of time. We may express the
input-output relation of the device as x1(t) = v(t)
y1 (t )  x1 (t ) / R(t )
Show that the thermistor so described is time variant.
Solution:
1. Let response y2(t) of the thermistor x1(t  t0)
to
x1 (t  t0 ) is
y2 (t ) 
R(t )
2. Let y1(t  t0) = the original output of the thermistor due to x1(t), shifted by t0
seconds:
x1 (t  t0 )
y1 (t  t0 ) 
R(t  t0 )
3. Since R(t)  R(t  t0) y1 (t  t0 )  y2 (t ) for t0  0 Time variant!

49
Linearity
A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input (excitation) x(t) and
the system output (response) y(t) if it satisfies the following two properties of
superposition and homogeneity:
1. Superposition:
x (t )  x1 (t ) y (t )  y1 (t ) x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t )
x ( t )  x2 ( t ) y ( t )  y2 ( t ) y (t )  y1 (t )  y2 (t )
2. Homogeneity: a = constant
x(t ) y (t ) ax(t ) ay (t ) factor

50
Linearity of a Continuous time system
1. Operator H represent the continuous-tome system.
2. Input:
N
x1(t), x2(t), …, xN(t)  input signal; a1, a2, …, aN 
x(t )   ai xi (t ) Corresponding weighted factor
i 1
3. Output: N
y (t )  H {x(t )}  H { ai xi (t )}
i 1
N
Superposition and
y (t )   ai yi (t ) homogeneity
i 1
where
yi (t )  H {xi (t )}, i  1, 2, ..., N .
4. Commutation and Linearity:
N
y (t )  H { ai xi (t )}
i 1
N N
  ai H {xi (t )}   ai yi (t )
i 1 i 1

51
The linearity property of a system.
(a) The combined operation of amplitude scaling and summations precedes the operator H for
multiple inputs.
(b) The operator H precedes amplitude scaling for each input; the resulting outputs are then
summed to produces the overall output y(t).
If these two configuration produce the same output y(t), then the operator H is said to be LINEAR.

52
Example: Linear Discrete-Time system
Consider a discrete-time system described by the input-output relation

y[n]  nx[n]
Show that this system is linear.
Solution
N
1. Input: x[n]   ai xi [n]
i 1
2. Resulting output signal:
N N N
y[n]  n ai xi [n]   ai nxi [n]   ai yi [n] where yi [n]  nxi [n]
i 1 i 1 i 1
Linear system!

53
Example: Nonlinear Continuous-Time System
Consider a continuous-time system described by the input-output relation
y(t )  x(t ) x(t  1)
Show that this system is nonlinear.
Solution:
N
1. Input: x(t )   ai xi (t )
i 1
2. Output:
N N N N
y(t )   ai xi (t ) a j x j (t  1)  ai a j xi (t ) x j (t  1)
i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1
y(t )  i 1 ai yi (t )
N
Here we cannot Nonlinear system!
write

54
Contents
4.1 Step Function
4.2 Ramped Function

6.1 Stability
6.2 Memory
6.3 Causality
6.4 Inevitability
6.5 Time Invariance
6.6 Linearity
7 Noise
55
Noise
Definition:
an unwanted signal that tend to disturb the operation of a system,

which are completely uncontrolled.
Categories of noises:
1. External sources of noise:

• Atmospheric noise, environmental noise, human-made noise
2. Internal sources of noise:

• May arises inside the system
• For example, ripples in electrical circuits, spontaneous
fluctuations of current and voltages.

56
57
Noise
Application Case Study

Refs: https://www.predig.com/whitepaper/reducing-signal-noise-practice 58

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ENT 281

Signal and Systems

Dr. Abdul Halim Ismail

5 System Block Diagram

6 Properties of the System

School of Mechatronic Engineering

5 System Block Diagram

6 Properties of the System

School of Mechatronic Engineering

The signals appear naturally in a wide class of physical

School of Mechatronic Engineering

The continuous-time version of the unit-step defined by:

School of Mechatronic Engineering

School of Mechatronic Engineering

Consider the signum function (written sgn) shown in figure

School of Mechatronic Engineering

The discrete-time version of the unit-step defined by:

School of Mechatronic Engineering

• The continuous-time ramp function is defined as:

Ramp function of unit slope.

• The ramp function is obtained by integrating the unit step function:

School of Mechatronic Engineering

• The discrete-time ramp function is defined as:

Discrete-time version of the ramp function.

School of Mechatronic Engineering

The discrete-time unit impulse function, also called unit

School of Mechatronic Engineering

The continuous-time unit impulse function δ(t), also called

School of Mechatronic Engineering

• As the duration decreases, the rectangular pulse approximates

School of Mechatronic Engineering

A CT real exponential signal has the general formula as:

B and a are real parameters

School of Mechatronic Engineering

1. Decaying exponential, for which a < 0

(a) Decaying exponential form of continuous-time signal.

Lossy capacitor, with the loss represented by

x[n]  Br n (1.34) ,where r  e

(a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal. (b) Growing exponential

School of Mechatronic Engineering

School of Mechatronic Engineering

(a) Sinusoidal signal A cos( t + Φ) with phase Φ = +/6 radians.

v(t )  V0 cos(0t ), t  0 (1.37)

School of Mechatronic Engineering

x[n]  A cos(n   ) (1.39)

Periodic condition: x[n  N ]  A cos(n  N   ) (1.40)

School of Mechatronic Engineering

A discrete-time sinusoidal signal: A = 1,  = 0, and N = 12.

School of Mechatronic Engineering

A pair of sinusoidal signals with a common angular frequency is

x1[n]  sin[5 n] and x2 [n]  3 cos[5 n]

y[n]  x1[n]  x2[n]

(a) Angular frequency of both x1[n] and x2[n]:

(b) Trigonometric identity:

School of Mechatronic Engineering

School of Mechatronic Engineering

A cos(t   )  Re{Be jt }

School of Mechatronic Engineering

A cos(n   )  Re{Be jn } and

A sin(n   )  Im{Be jn }

School of Mechatronic Engineering

Projection on real axis: cos(n);