Rote learning is where

you memorize
something
without full
understanding and you
do not know how
the new information
relates to your other
stored
knowledge.
the facts are stored in
a relational manner -
the brain stores them
together because they
are related to each
other. Now, when 1
fact is recalled, the
other facts are also
recalled at that
moment(or shortly
thereafter)

spread of activation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explained the concept and origins of
constructivism;
Described types of constructivism pertaining to
individual/ cognitive constructivism and social
constructivism;
Described the used of constructivism in the
classroom teaching
Explained the concept of metacognition;
Distinguished between novice learner and
expert learner; and
Described several strategies to encourage
metacognition in the classroom
Definition of Constructivism
“… An approach to learning in which learners
are provided the opportunity to construct
their own sense of what is being learned by
building internal connection or relationship
among the ideas and facts being taught.”
Borich and Tombari (1997)
• learners try to make sense of
the world by relying on their
pre-existing schemas.
• Learning is aided by social
interaction with peers and
teachers and via real world
experiences.
• theoretical parallels to be
drawn between the recent
constructivist movement and
• Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky,
and Jerome Bruner.
“… A view of learning that says learners use their
experiences to actively construct understandings
that makes sense to them, rather than have
understanding delivered to them in already
organized form.”
Eggan and Kauchak (1997)
“ Human are not passive information receiver.
Human are active information receiver, they
build network of information with their
previous information and they assimilate or
accommodate new knowledge with the old
information in order to build their own
understanding of the new information.”
(Cheek, 1992)
 Assimilation Accommodation

• Assimilation occurs when • Accommodation involved

children take in new
information and
incorporate it into their
existing schemes.
• Examples: A young kid • Examples: The kid has to
may identify all soft toys
as “teddy bear” and all
flying vehicles as
“aeroplane”.
the modification of
existing schemes to fit
new information and
experiences.
be informed that not all
flying vehicles are
aeroplanes. In this case,
accommodation would
involve the modification
of the aeroplane scheme.
Types of Constructivism
Vygotsky views on constructivism
focus on the transmission of the
tools of knowledge – namely
culture and language.

Piaget views on constructivism

more strongly emphasized each
individual’s creation of new
knowledge.
 Individual
constructivism:
also called
cognitive
constructivism.
emphasizes
individual,
internal
construction of
knowledge
 Social
constructivism:
knowledge exist
in a social
context and is
initially shared
with others
instead of being
represented
solely in the
mind of an
individual
 Characteristics of constructivism
1. Learners construct understanding
2. New learning depends on current
understanding
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic
learning tasks.
"Learners are encouraged to discover facts
and relationships for themselves."
Jerome Bruner
Jerome
Learning theorist
Bruner
 Associated with the Constructivist view of
learning

 Originated Discovery method of learning.

 1915: Born in NYC

 1947 : Ph. D. , Psychology from Harvard

Jerome Bruner
 Rooted mainly in the study of
cognition

 Reacted against behaviorist

model of learning

 Change from behaviorist

model
Bruner’s Beliefs
 Bruner believes that students must be active—they
must identify key principles for themselves rather than
simply accepting teachers’ explanations.

 This process has been called DISCOVERY

LEARNING.
Cognitive Development

The term cognitive development can be

defined as continual learning and
development through engaging in activities
that prevent deterioration of existing skills
and nurture new ones.

For Bruner, the outcome of Cognitive

Development is THINKING.
 Three Modes of Representation
Bruner proposed three systems by which he believed
people represent their understanding of the world:

"We always have to construct

what we think the world is" - Bruner

1.Enactive Representation
2.Iconic Representation
3.Symbolic Representation
 Modes of Representation

• Each of Bruner's stages of representation builds off of

the knowledge and information learned in the previous
stage, or in other words, the stage before acts as
scaffolding for the next stage.

• Each stage is a "way in which information or knowledge

are stored and encoded in memory" (Mcleod, 2008).

Powerpoint Templates
Page 23
 I. Enactive (action-based)
Sometimes called the concrete stage, this first stage
involves a tangible hands-on method of learning.
Bruner believed that "learning begins with an action -
touching, feeling, and manipulating" (Brahier, 2009, p.
52).
• For example:
o Keyboarding

o Kickline or cheerleading squad

o
o Telephone number or password

Powerpoint Templates
Page 24
 II. Iconic (image-based)
 Sometimes called the pictorial stage, this
second stage involves images or other
visuals to represent the concrete situation
enacted in the first stage.

• For example:
o Illustrating a poem visually
o Interpret a dream, memory or feeling visually

Powerpoint Templates
Page 25
 III. Symbolic (language-based)
 Symbolic Representation: the child is able to use
abstract ideas, symbols, language, and logic to
understand and represent the world.
 Sometimes called the abstract stage, the last
stage takes the images from the second stage and
represents them using words and symbols.
 The use of words and symbols "allows a student to
organize information in the mind by relating concepts
together" (Brahier, 2009, p. 53).

• For example:
o Sign Language Alphabet

Powerpoint Templates
Page 26
Principles of Instruction
1. Instruction must be concerned with the
experiences and contexts that make the
student willing and able to learn.
(readiness)
2. Instruction must be structured so that it
can be easily grasped by the student.
(spiral organization)
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given)

Powerpoint Templates
Page 28
Discovering Learning
Discovering learning refers to obtaining
knowledge for oneself. Teachers plans and
arranges activities in such a way that students
search, manipulate, explore, and investigate.
Students learn new knowledge relevant to the
domain and such general problem – solving skills
as formulating rules, testing and gathering
information. Most discovery does not happen by
chance. Once students possess prerequisite
knowledge, careful structuring of materials
allows them to discover important principles.

Powerpoint Templates
Page 29
 Bruner (1966) states that a theory of
instruction should address 4 major aspects:
1. Predisposition to Learn
He introduced the ideas of “readiness for
learning” . Bruner believed that any subject
could be taught at any stage of development in
a way that fits the child's cognitive abilities.
Bruner emphasized social factors and early
teacher’s and parent’s influence on this. He
believed that learning and problem solving
emerged out of exploration.
Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and
direct and direct a child’s spontaneous
exploration.

Powerpoint Templates
Page 30
2. Structure of Knowledge
Bruner emphasized the role of structure in
learning and how it may be made central in
teaching.
Structure refers to relationships among
factual elements and techniques. This will
depend on different factors, and their will be
many ways to structure a body of knowledge
and many preferences among learners.

Powerpoint Templates
Page 31
 Understanding the fundamental structure of a
subject makes it more comprehensible. Bruner
viewed categorization as a fundamental process
in the structuring of knowledge. Details are better
retained when placed within the context of an
ordered and structured pattern.
To generate knowledge which is transferable to
other context, fundamental principle or pattern
are best suited.
The discrepancy between beginning and advance
knowledge area is diminished when instruction
enters on a structure and principles of
orientation.
Powerpoint Templates
Page 32
3. Effective Sequencing
No one sequencing will sit every learner, but in
general, the lesson can be presented in
increasing difficulty.
Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning
easier or more difficult.

4. Reinforcement
Rewards and punishments should be selected
and paced appropriately. He investigated
motivation for learning. He felt that ideally,
interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus
for learning.
Bruner did not like external competitive goals
such as grades or class ranking.

Powerpoint Templates
Page 33
Powerpoint Templates
Page 34