11.

1 ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
AND VACCINATION
The immune system distinguish between body cells (‘self’) and foreign materials (‘non-self’)

All nucleated cells of the body possess unique and distinctive surface molecules that identify it as self
•These self markers are called major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC class I) and function as identification tags
•The immune system will not normally react to cells bearing these genetically determined markers (self-tolerance)

Any substance that is recognized as foreign and is capable of triggering an immune response is called an antigen (non self)
•Antigens are recognized by lymphocytes which bind to and detect the characteristic shape of an exposed portion (epitope)
•Lymphocytes trigger antibody production (adaptive immunity) which specifically bind to epitopes via complementary
paratopes
RBC possess antigenic markers which limit
the capacity for transfusion (the ABO blood
system)
•RBC possess surface glycoproteins (A and B
antigens) either independently (A or B) or in
combination (AB)
•Alternatively, red blood cells may possess
neither surface glycoprotein (denoted as O)

Additional glycoprotein (Rhesus factor) is

either present or absent, resulting in positive
and negative blood groups
When the body is challenged by a foreign pathogen it will respond with both a non-specific and a specific immune reaction
•Non-specific immune cells called macrophages will engulf pathogens non-selectively and break them down internally
•A proportion of macrophages (dendritic cells) will present the antigenic fragments of the pathogen to specific lymphocytes

The body contains millions of different T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes that each recognize a single, specific antigen
•Antigenic fragments are presented to specific helper T lymphocytes (TH cells) that, when activated, releases cytokines
•The cytokines stimulate a specific B cell that produces antibodies to the antigen to divide and form clones (clonal selection)
•Most of the clones will develop into short-lived plasma cells that produce large quantities of specific antibody
•A small proportion of clones will differentiate into long-lived memory cells that function to provide long-term immunity

Antigen presentation

T and B cell activation

B cell cloning
Antibody structure and function
An allergen is an environmental substance that triggers an immune response despite not being intrinsically
harmful (e.g., pollen, peanuts, egg whites, and bee venom)
•This immune response tends to be localized to the region of exposure (e.g. airways and throat) as an allergic
reaction
•A severe systemic allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis and can be fatal if left untreated
•Vasodilation causes redness (as vessel expansion moves blood closer to the skin) and heat (which is
transported in blood)

•Increased permeability leads to swelling (more fluid leaks from the blood) and pain (swelling causes
compression of nerves)
Diagnostic Use
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to test for pregnancy via the presence of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) in urine
•hCG is a hormone produced by women during foetal development and thus its presence in urine is indicative of pregnancy

Pregnancy tests use a process called ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) to identify a substance via a colour change
•Free monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG are conjugated to an enzyme that changes the colour of a dye
•A second set of monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG are immobilised to the dye substrate
•If hCG is present in urine, it will interact with both sets of monoclonal antibody (forming an antibody ‘sandwich’)
•When both sets of antibody are bound to hCG, the enzyme is brought into physicial proximity with the dye, changing its colour
•A third set of monoclonal antibodies will bind any unattached enzyme-linked antibodies, functioning as a control
Herd Immunity
Vaccinations programmes are implemented to reduce the outbreak of particular infectious diseases within populations
•An epidemic is a substantially increased occurrence of a particular infection within a given region
•A pandemic is an epidemic that has spread across a large geographical area (like a continent)

Vaccination confers immunity to vaccinated individuals but also indirectly protects non-vaccinated individuals via herd immunity
•Herd immunity is when individuals who are not immune to a pathogen are protected from exposure by the large amounts of immune
individuals within the community