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Fluid and Its Properties:

 Definition of Fluid

All matter can be divided into 2 major classes

1) Solid
2) Fluids

The difference between a solid and fluid can be

defined by
1) The stress-strain relationship
2) The elasticity
 The Stress-Strain Relationship

Solid
requires external forces to cause it to deform.

Fluid
will deform without the application of external forces.
will take on the shape of the container in which they are
held.
-Ex. water, oil, gas etc.
 The Elasticity Relationship

Solid
-When external forces stress and deform solids, the solid
will regain their original shape when these external forces
are removed [Elasticity].

Fluid
-Fluid will continue to change shape in time even after the
removal of the external forces causing the deformation.
Fluids can be classified into 2 forms of matter
1) Liquids
2) Gases
 FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid: Fluids are substance which area capable of flowing
and conforming the shapes of container.
 Fluids can be in gas or liquid states.
Mechanics: Mechanics is the branch of science that deals
with the state of rest or motion of body under the action of
forces.
Fluid Mechanics: Branch of mechanic that deals with then
response or behaviour of fluid either at rest or in motion.
 Why to Study Fluid Mechanics?
knowledge of which is needed in the design of:

 Water supply and treatment system

 Pumps used for handling of different fluids

 Ships, submarines, aeroplanes, Automobiles

 Storage tanks (milk silo, tankers, feed tanks, balance tanks etc.)

 Piping systems for various utilities, pipefitting & valves, flow meters

 Measuring instrument

 Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) systems for optimum performance

 Heat transfer behaviour in processing equipments (such as HTST

pasteurizers, spray dryers etc.)
Fluid Mechanics and Engineering Applications:
 Units and Dimensions
1. SI system: It is the International System of Units
(abbreviated SI from the French Le System International units.
2. CGS system: It is a system of physical units based on
centimetre as the unit of length, gram as a unit of mass, and
second as a unit of time.
3. MKS system: It is a metric system of physical units based
on meter as the unit of length, kilogram as a unit of mass, and
second as a unit of time.
4. FPS system: The foot-pound-second system or FPS system
is a system of units built on the three fundamental units foot
for length, pound for either mass or force and second for time.
 Table. Commonly used units in CGS, MKS, FPS and SI
Dimension CGS units MKS units FPS Unit SI units

Length (L) Centimeter (cm) Meter (m) Foot (ft) meter, (m)

Mass (M) Gram (g) Kilogram Pound (lbM) kilogram (kg)

(kg)
Time (T) Second (sec) Second
The Stress-Strain Relationship Second (sec) Second (s)
(sec)
Force (F) Dyne (Dyn) Kilogram- Pound-force Newton (N)
force(kgf) (lbF) (=kg m/s2)
Temperature
(θ)
Absolute Rankine (R) Celsius (C) Kelvin (K) Kelvin (K)

Ordinary Fahrenheit (F) Celsius (C) Kelvin (K) Celsius (C)

Table. Unit prefixes in SI system

Factor Prefix Symbol

109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 kilo k
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
 Table . Quantities, dimensions and units
Quantity Dimen Preferre Specific ML-2T-2 N/m3
sions d units weight (ω)
(M LT) (SI) Energy/Wor ML2T-2 J
Length (L) L m k/Heat (E)
Time (T) T s Power (P) ML2T-3 W
Mass (M) M kg Dynamic ML-1T1 Ns/m2 or P
Area (A) L2 m2 viscosity (μ) a.s
Volume (Vol) L3 m3 Kinematic L2 T-1 m2/s
Velocity (V) LT-1 m/s viscosity (υ)
Acceleration (a) LT-2 m/s2
Discharge (Q) L3 T-1 m3/s
Force (F) MLT-2 N
Pressure (p) ML-1T-2 Pa
Shear stress (τ) ML-1T-2 N/m2
Density (ρ) ML-3 kg/m3
 Properties of Fluids
Density ()

Density is the mass of the fluid per unit volume

=M
V
 = Density of fluid, kg/m3
M = Mass of fluid, kg
V = Unit volume, m3

The density of water at 40C = 1,000 kg/m3

 Properties of Fluids
Specific Weight/Unit Weight ()

The specific weight is the weight of the fluid per unit

volume

=W
V
 = Specific weight, N/m3
W = Weight of fluid, N (W=mg)
V = Unit volume, m3
The specific weight of water at 40C = 9.81 kN/m3
 Properties of Fluids

Specific Gravity/Relative Gravity (S)

The specific gravity is the ratio of the density or specific

weight of the fluid to the density or specific weight of
water, at a temperature of 4oC

 
S = w = w Dimensionless
 Dynamic Viscosity ()
Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance
to internal shear stresses.
 dy
 
du du
dy

 = Dynamic viscosity, N.s/m2 or Pa.s

 = Internal shear stress, N ( =F/A)
u = Velocity, m/s
 Properties of Fluids

Kinematic Viscosity ()

The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of
its dynamic viscosity to its density.


v

 = kinematic viscosity, m2/s or poise
 = Dynamic viscosity, N.s/m2 or Pa.s
 = Density of fluid, kg/m3
 Properties of Fluids

Surface Tension ()

The capacity of liquids to resist tensile stresses
at their surface is called surface tensile.
 Types of Fluids:
Fluids can be classified into four basic types:
 Ideal Fluid: An Ideal Fluid is a fluid that has no viscosity. It
is incompressible in nature. Practically, no ideal fluid exists.
 Real Fluid: Real fluids are compressible in nature. They
have some viscosity. Examples: Kerosene, Petrol, oil
 Newtonian Fluid: a real fluid in which the shear stress is
directly proportional to rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient (Newton’s law of viscosity ) are known as
Newtonian Fluids. For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is entirely
dependent upon the temperature and pressure of the fluid.
Examples: water, air, emulsions
 Non-Newtonian Fluid: Fluids that do not obey Newton’s law of
viscosity are non-Newtonian fluids. Examples: Flubber, Oobleck
(suspension of starch in water).
 Ideal plastic fluid: A fluid in which shear stress is more than the
yields value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain
(velocity gradient) is known as ideal plastic fluid.
What Is Kinematics Of Fluid?

 Fluid Kinematics is the study of fluid in

motion where pressure forces are not considered.

It is generally a continuous function in

space and time.
 Methods of describing Fluid Motion:-

 Lagrangian Method:-

Describes a defined mass (position,

velocity, acceleration, pressure,
temperature, etc.) as functions of time.

 Ex:- Track the location of a migrating

bird.
Eulerian Method :-

Describes the flow field (velocity,

acceleration, pressure, temperature, etc.)
as functions of position and time.

Ex:- Count the birds passing a

particular location.
  Types Of Fluid Flow:-

1) Steady & Unsteady Flows.

2) Uniform & Non-uniform Flows.

3) Laminar & Turbulent Flows.

4) Compressible & Incompressible Flows.

5) Rotational & Irrotational Flows.

6) One , Two & Three Dimensional Flows.

 Steady & Unsteady Flows:-

 Steady Flows:-

• In which the fluid Characteristics

Like velocity, pressure, density , etc.
At a Point do not change with time.
 Unsteady Flow:-

• In which the fluid velocity ,

pressure or density at a point
changes with respect to time.

Changing in time
  Uniform & Non-uniform
Flow :-

Uniform Flow:-

In which the velocity at given time does not

change with respect to space ( length of direction
of the flow ).
Non-Uniform Flow:-
• In which the velocity at any time changes with
respect to space.

Changing in space
  Laminar & Turbulent flows:-

 Laminar Flow:-
• in which the fluid
particles move along
well defined paths
or stream line.

Fig. Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow:-

 fluid moves in very

irregular paths or zig
–zag Way.

efficient mixing.

velocity at a point
fluctuates.

Fig. Turbulent Flow

Compressible & Incompressible Flows:-

Compressible Flows:-

In which the density of the fluid changes from point to

point.
The density is not constant for the fluid.

Incompressible Flows:-

 In which the density of fluid changes from point to point.

 the density is constant for the fluid.
 Rotational & Irrotational Flows:-

Rotational Flows :-

In which the fluid particles while flowing along

stream lines, Also rotate about their own axis.

Irrotational Flows:-

In which the fluid particles while flowing along

stream lines, do not rotate about their own axis.
  One , Two & Three Dimensional
Flows:-
 One Dimensional Flow:-

In which the flow parameter such as

velocity is a function of time and

one space co-ordinate only.

  Two Dimensional Flows:-

In which the velocity is a function of time

and

two rectangular space co-ordinates.

  Three Dimensional Flows:-

In which the velocity is the function of time and

Three mutually perpendicular directions.

 Flow Visualization:-
Flow Visualization is the visual examination of flow-field
features.

Important for both physical experiments and

Numerical Solutions.

Numerous Methods:-
1) Streamlines.

2) Pathlines.

3) Streaklines.
Streamline:-

A Streamline is a curve that is everywhere

tangent to the instantaneous local velocity vector.

It has the direction of the velocity vector at each

point no. of flow across the streamline.
steady flow streamlines
are fixed in space.

 But, unsteady flow

streamlines moves.

Fig. Streamline
 Pathline:-
A Pathline is the actual path travelled by an
individual fluid particle over some time period.

Same as the fluid particle's material position vector

And the path of a particle same as Streamline
for Steady Flow.

Fig. Pathline
 Streakline:-

A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that

have passed sequentially through a prescribed point
in the flow.

Easy to generate in experiments like dye in a water

flow, or smoke in an airflow.
And a tracer injected
continuously into a flow.

same as pathline and

streamline for steady
flow.

Fig.Streakline
 Dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with forces causing the
fluid flow.
 The dynamic behavior of the fluid flow is analyzed by Newton’s second law of
motion.
 The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non viscous

 Newton's 2nd Law:

 Acceleration is produced when a force act on a mass.

Fx  ma x
 The net force acting on a fluid element in the direction of X is equal to
mass(m) of the fluid element multiplied by the acceleration ax in X
direction.
 Equation of motion:
 gives relationship between object mass its acceleration and the
applied force
 For fluid flow following forces are present:
 1. Fg gravity force
 2. Fp the pressure force
 3. Fv force due to viscosity
 4. Ft force due to turbulence
 5. Fc force due to compressibility
 NET FORCE
Fx=(Fg)x + (Fp)x+ (Fv)x + (Ft )x+ (Fc)x
If force due to compressibility, Fc is negligible, then the net
force is : this equation is called Reynolds equation of motion
Fx=(Fg)x + (Fp)x+ (Fv)x + (Ft )x

For flow, where Ft is negligible the resulting equation of

motion are known as Navier-Strokes equation

If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force (Fv) is zero

and the equation of motion are known as Euler’s equation of
motion.
 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

Bernoulli’s Theorem is based on the

conservation of energy in fluid flow.

There are three types of energy namely

potential energy, kinetic energy and
pressure energy possessed by the liquid.
Assumption for Bernoulli’s equation

(1) The flow is along stream line.

(2) The flow is steady and continuous.
(3) The fluid is non-viscous (ideal fluid) and
incompressible (ρ = constant).
(4) Flow is irrotational.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Bernoulli’s EQUATION:
Bernoulli’s theorem is applicable for all
incompressible fluid flow where energy
considerations are invalid. But we shall consider its
application to the flowing measuring device :
 Venturimeter
 Orifice meter
 Pitot tube.
 Venturimeter
Venturimeter is used to the measurement of flow rate. It is generally used for
large diameter pipes.
 Venturi tube consists :

Entrance Section: It is a straight cylinder having length equal to 5 to 8 times the

diameter of the pipe.
Convergence Section: Here, the diameter of the tube gradually decreases. When
liquid flows inside the venturimeter, the velocity of fluid increases and
correspondingly the pressure falls.
Throat: At this section, the diameter of the venturemeter is minimum. Velocity is
maximum and pressure is minimum. Throat diameter = 1/3 to 1/4th inlet diameter.
Diverging section: Here the diameter of the tube gradually increases. Here due to
gradual divergence pressure is build up to the original inlet pressure. The cone
angle is 5-7.
 Orifice meter

orifice meter is a simple device used for

measuring the discharge through pipes.
It works on the same principle as that of
venturimeter i.e pressure difference is
created by reducing the cross-sectional
area of the flow passage and
measurement of the pressure difference
enables the determination of discharge
through the pipe.
 3. PITOT TUBE:

 It is a device used to measure velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel

.
 It works based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point become
zero, there is increased pressure due to the conversation of the kinetic energy

Theoretical Flow velocity at point B is

V  2 gh
Actual Flow velocity at point B is

Vact=Cv√2𝑔ℎ

Where, Cv is coefficient of velocity at Pitot tube, h=rise of liquid inside the tube
 What is Vena-Contracta?

 Vane of contracta is the point in a fluid stream

where the diameter of the stream is least and
the fluid velocity is maximum, such as in case
of a stream passing out from orifice.
 Vane of contracta is approximately at a distance
of half of diameter of orifice and the
streamline are straight and parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the plane of the
orifice.
 Flow Velocity at Vena Contracta

At point A At point B
pA = 0 pB = 0
VA = 0 VB = VB
ZA = h ZB = 0
2 2
From Bernoulli’s theorem: P1 v1

P v
 z1  2  2  z 2
g 2 g g 2 g

Placing values at points A and B VB  2 gh

Note: This is the theoretical velocity. Actual velocity will be less than this value.
 Hydraulic Coefficient

1. Coefficient of velocity Cv :

2. Coefficient of contraction Cc :

3. Coefficient of discharge Cd :
Actual velocity < theoretical velocity.
So, value of all coefficients < 1.
 ORIFICES AND MOUTHPIECE
 In fluid dynamics and hydrometry, the volumetric flow rate, (also known as
volume flow rate, rate of fluid flow or volume velocity) is the volume of
fluid which passes through a given surface per unit time.
 The SI unit is m3/s (cubic meters per second).
 It is usually represented by the symbol Q.
 Flow rate can be measured by orifice, notches, weirs etc
Orifice: An orifice is an opening
in the side or bottom of a
vessel/tank to measure the
discharge.
Mouthpiece: a short length of a
piece which is two three times its
times diameter in length.
MOUTHPIECE
 A notch is a device used for measuring
the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel
or tank . It is an opening in the side of a measuring
tank or reservoir extending above the free surface.
A weir is a concrete or masonary
structure , placed in an open channel over which
the flow occurs . It is generally in the form of
vertical wall ,With sharp edge at the top.
Discharge through a rectangular notch
Consider a sharp edge rectangular notch with crest
horizontal and normal to direction of flow .
 Let H = head of water over the crest
L = length of the notch
consider an elementary horizontal strip of
water of thickness dh and length L at a depth h
from the free surface of water.

Area of strip = L  dh
Theoretical velocity of water flowing through
strip =
2gh
The discharge through strip

dQ  Cd  Ldh  2 gh
 The total discharge , over the whole notch,
may be found by integrating the above equation
with in the limits 0 and H.
H
Q C
0
d  L 2 gh  dh

H
 Cd  L  2g 
0
hdh

H
 3 
 h2 
 Cd  L  2g  
3
 
 2 0
3
2
 Cd .L. 2 g  H  2
3
 Discharge through triangular notch
Triangular notch is also called V-notch . The
expression of discharge is derive
 Let H =head of water above V-notch
 =Angle of notch
Consider a horizontal strip of the water having
thickness dh at depth h below the free surface of
water.
We have,
 AC AC
tan  
2 OC H  h
 
AC   H  h  tan  
2

 
Width of strip= AB  2 AC  2  H  h  tan  
2
 
Area of strip= 2  H  h  tan  dh
2

The theoretical velocity of water through strip

=
Discharge
2gh through the strip ,dQ:


dQ  Cd  2  H  h  tan  dh  2 gh
2

dQ  2Cd  H  h  tan  2 gh  dh
2
Total discharge Q,:
H

Q  2Cd  H  h  tan
0
2
 2 gh  dh

 H 1
Q  2Cd tan  2 g   H  h h dh
2
2 0
H
 3 5 
  Hh 2 h 2 
Q  2  Cd  tan  2 g  
2 3 5 
 
 2 2 0
  2 52 2 52 
Q  2  Cd  tan  2 g  H  H 
2 3 5 
 4 5

Q  2  Cd  tan  2 g  H 
2
2 15 
8  5
Q Cd  tan  2 g  H 2
15 2
HEAD LOSS IN FLUID FLOW
 Liquids flow in a pipe due to pressure or gravity.
 For pressure flow, piezometer is connected to the pipe, the rise of liquid
is suppose h meters. The pressure, P and head, h are related by the relation
P= ρgh.
 In SI system of units the pressure is usually measured in terms of Pa (N/m2)
or kPa.
 For liquids it can also be expressed as head i.e. the rise of liquid in
the piezometer.
 When a fluid flows through a pipe, it experiences some resistance due to which
some of the energy of fluid is lost.
 The head loss in fluid flow is classified in two categories namely major head
losses and minor head losses.
 Flow through pipe
There are two cases of flow:
(i) Closed conduit: It is a pipe or duct
through which the fluid flows by
completely filling the cross-section.
Since, the fluid has no free surface;
its pressure may be above or below
the pressure of the atmosphere
(ii) Open conduit: It is a duct or open
channel in which fluid flows with the
free surface. If a closed pipe not
running full, it may be treated as open
channel.
Types of Pressure/Head Loss:
A. Major Head losses in pipe flow: The major head losses in
fluid flow are caused by friction of the conveying pipeline.
The internal surface which comes in contact with the flowing
fluid causes friction on the fluid layers. The extent of head loss
depends on roughness of the pipeline as well as flow
characteristics of the fluid. This head loss takes place
continuously in the entire conveying pipeline/duct
b. Minor losses in pipe flow: Minor head losses include head
loss or pressure drop due to pipe fittings, valves, entrance and
exit of pipe, sudden contraction or expansion etc. This head
loss is relatively small in case of very long pipeline but it may
be high in case of small pipe network involving many fittings
and valves.
HEAD LOSS IN FLUID FLOW: MINOR HEAD LOSS

Minor Head losses are:

1. Head loss at the entrance of pipe
2. Head loss at the exit of pipe
3. Head loss due to obstruction in pipe
4. Head loss due to sudden contraction in pipe
5. Head loss due to sudden expansion in pipe
6. Head loss due to pipe fittings
1. Head loss at the entrance of pipe 2. Head loss at the exit of pipe

𝟎. 𝟓𝒗𝟐 𝑣2
𝒉𝒆𝒏 = ℎ𝑒𝑥 =
𝟐𝒈 2𝑔
Where, V = velocity
3. Head loss due to obstruction in pipe

4. Head loss due to sudden contraction in pipe

5. Head loss due to sudden expansion in pipe

6. Head loss due to pipe fittings

TYPE KL
Globe Valve 10
Gate valve(wide open) 0.2
45degree Elbow 0.4
KL= Friction loss co-efficient/ loss co-efficient, Bend 2.2
depend on the shape, size and type of pipe fittings.
 Determination of pipe diameter, discharge, friction
factor, critical velocity
Piping Systems:
a. Pipes connected in series:

b. Pipes connected in Parallel

 Dupit’s Equation for Equivalent Pipe:

Equivalent diameter:
The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is the
equivalent diameter series or compound pipe.

Equivalent length:
The length of equivalent pipe which has the same head loss & discharge that of series or
compound pipe.
Case1. Sometimes length of equivalent pipe is taken to be equal to the length of
compound pipe i.e.

Le = L1+ L2+ L3+ L4.

In such cases diameter of equivalent pipe Deq, can be calculated from Dupit’s
equation.

Case2. Sometimes value of equivalent diameter is given & length of equivalent

pipe requires replace compound pipe has to be determined by Dupit’s equation.
III. Suddes closure of valve and considering
pipe elastic.
Reaction Turbines
• Reaction turbines are those turbines which operate
under hydraulic pressure energy and part of kinetic
energy. In this case, the water reacts with the vanes
as it moves through the vanes and transfers its
pressure energy to the vanes so that the vanes move
in turn rotating the runner on which they are
mounted.
The main types of reaction turbines are :
I. Francis Turbine II. Kaplan Turbine
 and  are the angles between the absolute velocities of jet and vane at inlet and outlet respectively
 and  are vane angles at inlet and outlet respectively
The mass of water striking a series of vanes per second =  a V1
where a is the area of jet or flow and V1 is the velocity of flow at inlet.
The momentum of water striking a series of vanes per second at inlet is given by the product of mass of
water striking per second and the component of velocity of flow at inlet
 and  are the angles between the absolute velocities of jet and vane at inlet and outlet respectively
 and  are vane angles at inlet and outlet respectively
The mass of water striking a series of vanes per second =  a V1
where a is the area of jet or flow and V1 is the velocity of flow at inlet.
The momentum of water striking a series of vanes per second at inlet is given by the product of mass of
water striking per second and the component of velocity of flow at inlet
 u1
(i) Speed ratio = where H is the Head on turbine
2g H

Vf1
(ii) Flow ratio = where Vf1 is the velocity of flow at inlet
2g H
(iii) Discharge flowing through the reaction turbine is given by
Q =  D1 B1 Vf1 =  D2 B2 Vf2
Where D1 and D2 are the diameters of runner at inlet and exit
B1 and B2 are the widths of runner at inlet and exit
Vf1 and Vf2 are the Velocity of flow at inlet and exit
If the thickness (t) of the vane is to be considered, then the area through which flow takes place is
given by ( D1 nt) where n is the number of vanes mounted on the runner.
Discharge flowing through the reaction turbine is given by
Q = ( D1 nt) B1 Vf1 = ( D2 nt) B2 Vf2

p1 V2
(iv) The head (H) on the turbine is given by H   1
g 2g
Where p1 is the pressure at inlet.
(v) Work done per second on the runner =  a V1 (Vw1u1 Vw2u2)
=  Q (Vw1u1 Vw2u2)

 D1 N
(vi) u1 
60
 D2 N
(vii) u2 
60
Work done per second
(viii) Work done per unit weight =
Weight of water striking per second
 Q Vw1u1  Vw2 u 2 
= 
1
Vw1u1  Vw2 u 2 
Qg g
If the discharge at the exit is radial, then Vw2 = 0 and hence

Work done per unit weight =

1
Vw1u1 
g
 Q Vw1u1  Vw2 u 2 
(ix) Hydraulic efficiency =
R.P.
 
1
Vw1u1  Vw2 u 2 
W .P.  gQH gH
If the discharge at the exit is radial, then Vw2 = 0 and hence
SN Reaction turbine Impulse turbine
1 Only a fraction of the available hydraulic All the available hydraulic energy is converted
energy is converted into kinetic energy before into kinetic energy by a nozzle and it is the jet so
the fluid enters the runner. produced which strikes the runner blades.
2. Both pressure and velocity change as the fluid It is the velocity of jet which changes, the
passes through the runner. Pressure at inlet is pressure throughout remaining atmospheric.
much higher than at the outlet.
3 The runner must be enclosed within a watertight Water-tight casing is not necessary. Casing has no
casing (scroll casing). hydraulic function to perform. It only serves to
prevent splashing and guide water to the tail race
4. Water is admitted over the entire circumference Water is admitted only in the form of jets. . There
of the runner may be one or more jets striking equal number of
buckets simultaneously.
5. Water completely fills at the passages between The turbine does not run full and air has a free
the blades and while flowing between inlet and access to the buckets
outlet sections does work on the blades
6. The turbine is connected to the tail race through The turbine is always installed above the tail race
a draft tube which is a gradually expanding and there is no draft tube used
passage. It may be installed above or below the
tail race
7. The flow regulation is carried out by means of a Flow regulation is done by means of a needle
guide-vane assembly. Other component parts valve fitted into the nozzle.
are scroll casing, stay ring, runner and the draft
tube
 Draft Tubes
• The water after working on the turbine, imparts its energy to
the vanes and runner, thereby reducing its pressure less than
that of atmospheric pressure (Vacuum). As the water flows
from higher pressure to lower pressure, it cannot come out of
the turbine and hence a divergent tube is connected to the
end of the turbine.
• Draft tube is a divergent tube one end of which is connected to
the outlet of the turbine and other end is immersed well below
the tailrace (Water level).
• I).The major function of the draft tube is to increase the
pressure from the inlet to outlet of the draft tube as it flows
through it and hence increase it more than atmospheric
pressure.
• II).The other function is to safely discharge the water that has
worked on the turbine to tailrace.
Purpose
1. It permits negative head to be established at the
outlet of the runner and there by increases the net
head on the turbine
2. It convert large proportion of the kinetic energy
rejected at the outlet of the turbine useful pressure
energy.
Efficiency of Draft tube(ηd ):
It is defined as the ratio of actual conversion of kinetic
head into pressure head in the draft tube to the kinetic
head at inlet of draft tube.
Hydraulic machine:
• The device which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy or vice versa is known as Hydraulic Machines.
• Examples: turbine , pump

• Turbine: The device which convert hydraulic energy to

mechanical energy.
• Pump: The device convert mechanical energy to hydraulic
energy.
 Turbine:
• Turbines convert hydraulic energy or hydro-
potential into mechanical energy.
• Mechanical energy developed by turbines is
used to run electric generators coupled to the
shaft of turbines.
• The electric power obtained from hydraulic
energy is called hydro electric power.

Hydro electric power plant layout:

a) A dam constructed across the river to store water
b) Pipes of large diameter (Penstock) carry water under pressure from reservoir to turbine
c) Turbines having different vane fitted to the wheels.
d) Tail race, (a channel to carry water from the turbine after worked on turbine)
 Important Terms:

Gross Head (Hg ): It is the vertical difference between

headrace and tailrace.

Net Head:(H): Net head or effective head is the actual

head available at the inlet of the to work on the turbine.

H = Hg – hf

Where, hf is the total head loss during the transit of

water from the headrace to tailrace which is mainly
head loss due to friction, and is given by
TYPES OF EFFICIENCIES
Depending on the considerations of input and output, the efficiencies can be
classified as
power developed by the runner
(i)Hydraulic Efficiency : ɳ𝐡 =
power supplied at the inlet of a turbine

power available at the shaft

(ii) Mechanical Efficiency: ɳ𝐦 =
power developed by the runner

power available at the shaft

(iii) Overall efficiency:ɳ𝐨 =
power supplied at the inlet of a turbine
= ɳ𝐡 x ɳ𝐦
 Classification of turbines:
Based on head at the inlet of turbine:
a) High head turbines (more than 250m)
b) Medium head turbines (45m to 250m )
c) Low head turbines (less than 45m )
Based on direction of flow of water in the runner
a) Tangential flow turbines : When the flow is tangential to the runner, it
is a tangential flow turbine.
b) Radial flow turbines: when the path of the flow of water remains in the
radial direction.
c) Axial flow turbines: When the path of flow water remains parallel to
the axis of the shaft
d) Mixed flow turbines: Gradual change of flow from radial to axial in the
runner
• Based on the types of energy at inlet:
a. Impulse turbine: it operates only by using kinetic energy
b. Reaction turbine: It operates by kinetic and pressure energy (runner is
enclosed in air tight).
• Based on specific speed of turbine:
a. Low Specific speed turbine:
b. Medium Specific speed turbine
c. High Specific speed turbine
Specific speed: It is used to specify the operating characteristics of a pump or
turbine. It defines the relationship between speed, discharge, capacity and
head.
1
ɳ𝑄2
ɳ𝑠 = 3
𝐻4
Pump
• Pump convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy,
i.e., in the form of pressure energy.
Centrifugal pump:
• When mechanical energy converted in pressure energy by
means centrifugal forces acting on the fluid that machine is
called centrifugal machine.
• Creating a low pressure at the inlet or suction end and a
high pressure at the outlet or delivery end of the pump.
• Components : Impeller, shaft, prime mover, casing, suction
pipe, delivery pipe.
Components of a Centrifugal Pump
• Basic components: a rotary element
called impeller and a stationary
element known as casing.

(1) Impeller: It is a rotor, which is

provided with a series of backward
curved blades.

(2) Casing: It is an air-tight chamber

which surrounds the impeller.

(3) Pump Inlet (Suction Port): Liquid

enters through the suction port or the
pump inlet and flows into the pump
casing.
(4) Suction Valve (or Reflux Valve):
It is used to retain water in the pump and the suction pipe section
between the pump and the reflux valve, to help priming. The reflux
valve is used when pumps are directly connected to the suction
pipe.

(5) Pump Outlet (Delivery Port):

(6) Delivery Valve:

(7) Priming Device (optional): A priming device in a centrifugal

pump eliminates the need for external priming mechanism.

(8) Foot Valve: foot valve is a one-way valve.

Difference heads of centrifugal pump:
a. Suction head
b. Delivery head
c. Static head: Suction + Delivery head
d. Monomeric head: It is defined as the head
against which a centrifugal pump has to work.

Hm=hs +hd + hfs + hfd + Vd2/2g

Where,
hs = Suction head
hd = delivery head
hfs = Frictional head loss in suction pipe
hfd = Frictional head loss in delivery pipe
Vd = Velocity of pipe in delivery pipe
Pump Efficiencies:
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑
1. Monomeric efficiency=
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓

𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓

2. Mechanical efficiency =
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕

3. Overall efficiency :It is a measure of the efficiency with which

the pump uses the input power to convert the energy into useful
output.
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑
η=
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕

= Mechanical efficiency x Monomeric efficiency

Reciprocating pump:
Centrifugal pumps Reciprocating Pumps

1.The discharge is continuous and smooth 1.The discharging is fluctuating and pulsating
2.It can handle large quantity of liquid 2.handles small quantity of liquid
3.It is used for large discharge through small 3.It is meant for small discharge at high heads
heads
4.Cost of centrifugal pump is less as compared 4.Cost of reciprocating pump is approximately
to reciprocating pump. four times the centrifugal pum`p.
5.Runs at high speeds. 5.Runs at low speed.
6.Efficiency is high 6.Efficiency is low
7.Needs smaller area and cost of installation is 7.Needs large floor area and installation is cost
less. is high
8.Low maintenance cost 8.High maintenance cost
9.It can be used for lifting highly viscous liquids 9.Used only for lifting pure water or less viscous
fluids.
What is Priming?
When the pump is shut down, the liquid in it
drains out of the suction line. At the bottom of
the casing in a priming device, a small quantity
of liquid is retained. When the pump is started
again, this water is pushed by the impeller out
the discharge line, along with some air. This
creates a vacuum at the impeller inlet, which
draws liquid up the suction line.
Priming of Centrifugal pump :
• It is the process of filling the suction pipe, casing of
the pump and the delivery pipe upto the delivery
valve with the liquid to be pumped.
• If Priming is not done the Pump cannot deliver the
liquid due to the fact that the head generated by
the Impeller will be in terms of metres of air which
will be very less (since, specific weight of air is
smaller than that of water).
Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pump
Multi-stage centrifugal pumps have two or more
identical impellers fitted to a single shaft and enclosed in
the same casing.

Thus, pressure is built up in steps. The

impellers are surrounded by guide vanes
and the water is led through a by-pass
channel from the outlet of one stage to
the entrance of the next until it is finally
discharged into a wide chamber from
where it is pushed on to the delivery
pipe
Horizontal centrifugal pump:
Designed with horizontal shafts and
impellers are mounted vertically on the
shafts.
commonly used for irrigation

Vertical centrifugal pump:

Have vertical shafts and impellers are
mounted horizontally on the shafts.
Vertical disposition of the shaft provides
an economy in space occupied, and hence
vertical pumps are suitable for deep wells,
mines, etc. They can also be used for
irrigation purposes.
Based on Based on Type of Impeller:
Open impeller pump: impeller consists only of blades
attached to a hub
semi-open impeller pump : It constructed with a circular
plate (the web) attached to one side of the blade
closed impeller pump: The enclosed impeller has circular
plates attached to both sides of the blades. Enclosed
impellers are also referred to as shrouded impellers
 Based on the specific speed (Modi and Seth, 1998)

Sl. No. Type of Pump Specific Speed (Ns)

1 Slow-Speed Radial Flow 300−900

2 Medium-Speed Radial Flow 900−1500

3 High-Speed Radial Flow 1500−2400

4 Mixed Flow or Screw Type 2400−5000

5 Axial Flow or Propeller Type 3400−15000