Index

Topic Slide No.

Star-Delta Transformation 2-26

Independent & Dependent Sources 27-38

Mesh Analysis & Nodal Analysis 39 - 96

Star – Delta Transformation
• For a three terminal network, the three
resistances can be expressed as a three node
delta (Δ) network or four node star (Y) network.
• These two networks are equivalent and the
transformations between them are given below.
• A general network with an arbitrary number of
nodes cannot be reduced to the minimum
number of resistances using only series and
parallel combinations.
• In general, Y-Δ and Δ-Y transformations must also
be used.
• For some networks the extension of Y-Δ to star-
polygon transformations may also be required.
• We saw previously that identifying parallel
and series combinations of resistors can often
lead to a significant reduction in the
complexity of a circuit.
• In situations where such combinations do not
exist, we can often make use of source
transformations to enable such
simplifications.
• There is another useful technique, called
delta-wye conversion, that arises out of
network.
Delta-to-star transformation equations

Star-to-delta transformation equations

• Example: In Fig. (a), if all the resistances are of
6 ohms, calculate the equivalent resistance
between any two diagonal points. [Nagpur
Univ. April 1998]
• Solution. If X-Y are treated as the concerned diagonal
points, for evaluating equivalent resistance offered by
the circuit, there are two ways of transforming this
circuit, as discussed below:
• Method 1: Delta to Star conversion applicable to the
delta of PQY introducing an additional node N as the
star-point.
• Delta with 6 ohms at each side is converted as 2 ohms
as each leg of the star-equivalent.
• This is shown in Fig. (b), which is further simplified in
Fig. (c).
• After handling series-parallel combinations of
resistances, total resistance between X and Y terminals
in Fig. (c) comes out to be 3 ohms.
• Method 2: Star to Delta conversion with P as
the star-point and XYQ to be the three points
of concerned converted delta.
• With star-elements of 6 ohms each, equivalent
delta-elements will be 18 ohms, as Fig. (d):
• This is included while redrawing the circuit as
in Fig. (e).
• Example: Find RAB in the circuit, given in Fig.
[Bombay Univ. 2001]
• Solution. Mark additional nodes on the
diagram. C, D, F. G. as shown.
• Redraw the figure as in (b), and simplify the
circuit. to evaluate RAB which comes out to be
22.5 ohms.
• Example 1.36. Find current through 4
resistance. [Bombay Univ. 2001]
• Solution. Simplifying the series-parallel
combinations, and solving the circuit, the
source current is to amp. With respect to 0,
VA=40, VB=40 - 16=24 volts.
• I1 = 4 amp, hence I2=6 amp
• Vc = VB-12 X 1.6 =24 - 9.6 = 14.4 volts
• I3 = 14.4/4=3.6 amp, which is the required
answer. Further I4=24 amp.
Independent and
Dependent Sources
 Independent Sources
• So far the voltage and current sources (whether ideal
or practical) that have been discussed are known as
independent sources and these sources play an
important role to drive the circuit in order to perform a
specific job.
• The internal values of these sources (either voltage
source or current source) – that is, the generated
voltage Vs or the generated currents are not affected
by the load connected across the source terminals or
across any other element that exists elsewhere in the
circuit or external to the source.
Those voltage or current sources, which do not
depend on any other quantity in the circuit, are
called independent sources.
An independent d.c. voltage source is shown in
Fig. (a) whereas a time-varying voltage source is
shown in Fig. (b).
The positive sign shows that terminal A is
positive with respect to terminal B. In other
words, potential of terminal A is v volts higher
than that of terminal B.
Similarly, Fig. (c) shows an ideal constant
current source whereas Fig. (d) depicts a time-
varying current source.
The arrow shows the direction of flow of the
current at any moment under consideration.
 Dependent Sources
• Another class of electrical sources is
characterized by dependent source or controlled
source.
• In fact the source voltage or current depends on a
voltage across or a current through some other
element elsewhere in the circuit.
• Sources, which exhibit this dependency, are called
dependent sources.
• Both voltage and current types of sources may be
dependent, and either may be controlled by a
voltage or a current.
• A dependent voltage or current source is one
which depends on some other quantity in the
circuit which may be either a voltage or a current.
• In general, dependent source is represented by
a diamond-shaped symbol as not to confuse it
with an independent source.
• One can classify dependent voltage and current
sources into four types of sources as shown in
fig.. ….
• These are listed below:
 There are four possible dependent sources :

I. Voltage-dependent voltage source [Fig. (a)]

2. Current - dépendent voltage source [Fig. (b)]
3. Voltage- dépendent curent source [Fig. (c)]
4. Current- dépendent current source [Fig. (d)]
Such sources can also be either constant sources
or time-varying sources.
Such sources are often met in electronic circuits.
As seen above, the voltage or current source is
dependent and is proportional to another current
or voltage.
The constants of proportionality are written as, r,
g, a and ᵦ.
The constants a and ᵦ have no units, r has the
unit of ohms and g has the unit of siemens
 Remember…….
Independent sources actually exist as physical
entities such as a battery, a d.c. generator and
an alternator etc.
But dependent sources are parts of models
that are used to represent electrical
properties of electronic devices such as
operational amplifiers and transistors etc.
BRANCH CURRENT
MESH
&
NODAL ANALYSIS
 INTRODUCTION
• Methods of analysis have been developed that
allow us to approach, in a systematic manner,
a network with any number of sources in any
arrangement.
• Fortunately, these methods can also be
applied to networks with only one source.
• The methods to be discussed in detail include
branch-current analysis, mesh analysis, and
nodal analysis.
 Each can be applied to the same network.

 The “best” method cannot be defined by a set of rules but

can be determined only by acquiring a firm understanding of
the relative advantages of each. All the methods can be
applied to linear bilateral networks.

 The term linear indicates that the characteristics of the

network elements (such as the resistors) are independent of
the voltage across or current through them.

 The second term, bilateral , refers to the fact that there

is no change in the behavior or characteristics of an element if
the current through or voltage across the element is reversed.
 I. BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
• Once the branch-current method is mastered,
there is no linear dc network for which a
solution cannot be found.
• Keep in mind that networks with two
isolated voltage sources cannot be
solved using the approach of series –
parallel method.
The Branch current analysis method is applied as
follows:
1. Assign a distinct current of arbitrary
direction to each branch of the network.
2. Indicate the polarities for each resistor as
determined by the assumed current direction.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each
closed, independent loop of the network.
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at the
minimum number of nodes that will include all
the branch currents of the network. (The
minimum number is one less than the number of
independent nodes of the network. For the
purposes of this analysis, a node is a junction of
two or more branches, where a branch is any
combination of series elements.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear
equations for assumed branch currents.
(It is assumed that the use of the determinants method to solve for the
currents I1, I2, and I3 is understood and is a part of the student’s
mathematical background)

Calculators and computer software packages such as Mathcad can also find the
solutions quickly and accurately.
• EXAMPLE 1: Apply the branch-current method
to the network of Fig. below.
Solution 1:
Step 1: Since there are three distinct branches
(cda, cba, ca), three currents of arbitrary
directions (I1, I2, I3) are chosen, as indicated in
Fig.(in the problem)
The current directions for I1 and I2 were chosen to
match the “pressure” applied by sources E1 and E2,
respectively.
Since both I1 and I2 enter node a, I3 is leaving.
Step 2: Polarities for each resistor are drawn to
agree with assumed current directions, as
indicated in Fig (next slide)
• Step 3: Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied
around each closed loop (1 and 2) in the
clockwise direction:
• Step 4: Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at
node a (in a two-node network, the law is
applied at only one node), I1 + I2 = I3
• Step 5: There are three equations and
three unknowns
• Using third-order determinants, we have
• Mathcad Solution: It is the software used to solve the
determinants in a very short time frame.
• Using the TI-86 calculator:
for ex:
• Reviewing the results of the analysis of the
network
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
loop indicated in Fig (above)
• EXAMPLE :2 Apply branch-current analysis to
the network of Fig.
• Solution: The current directions were chosen
to match the “pressure” of each battery. The
polarities are then added and Kirchhoff’s
voltage law is applied around each closed loop
in the clockwise direction. The result is as
follows
II. MESH ANALYSIS
The mesh-analysis approach simply eliminates
the need to substitute the results of Kirchhoff’s
current law into the equations derived from
Kirchhoff’s voltage law. It is now accomplished
in the initial writing of the equations.
• EXAMPLE:3 Find the branch currents of the
network of Fig. 8.28. Solution:
• EXAMPLE:4 Write the mesh equations for the
network of Fig. 8.36, and find the current
through the 7- resistor.
• EXAMPLE 5: Write the mesh equations for the
network of Fig. 8.37.
• EXAMPLE: 6 Find the current through the 10-
resistor of the network of Fig. 8.38
 Mesh-current analysis
• Mesh-current analysis is merely an extension
of the use of Kirchhoff’s laws.
• Figure 1. shows a network whose circulating
currents I1, I2 and I3 have been assigned to
closed loops in the circuit rather than to
branches. Currents I1, I2 and I3 are called
mesh-currents or loop-currents.
• In mesh-current analysis the loop-currents are
all arranged to circulate in the same direction
(in Figure 1, shown as clockwise direction).
• Kirchhoff’s second law is applied to each of
the loops in turn, which in the circuit of Figure
31.1 produces three equations in three
unknowns which may be solved for I1, I2 and
I3.
The three equations produced from Figure 1 are:

The branch currents are determined by taking the

phasor
sum of the mesh currents common to that branch.
For example, the current flowing in impedance Z2 of
Figure 1. is given by (I1−I2) phasorially. The method
Of mesh-current analysis, called Maxwell’s
theorem, is demonstrated in the following
problems
• The mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 are shown in
Figure 31.2.
 Supermesh Currents
On occasion there will be current sources in the
network to which mesh analysis is to be applied.
In such cases one can convert the current source
to a voltage source (if a parallel resistor is
present) and proceed as before or utilize a
supermesh current and proceed
• EXAMPLE 4 Using mesh analysis, determine
the currents of the network of Fig. 8.29.
Solution: First, the mesh currents for the
network are defined, as shown in Fig. 8.30.
Then the current source is mentally removed,
as shown in Fig. 8.31, and Kirchhoff’s voltage
law is applied to the resulting network.
The single path now including the effects of
two mesh currents is referred to as the path of
a supermesh current.
In the above analysis, it might appear that when
the current source was removed, I1 = I2.

However, the supermesh approach requires

that we stick with the original definition of
each mesh current and not alter those
definitions when current sources are removed.
• EXAMPLE:5 Using mesh analysis, determine
the currents for the network of Fig. 8.32
• Solution: The mesh currents are defined in
Fig. 8.33. The current sources are removed,
and the single super mesh path is defined in
Fig. 8.34.
 NODAL ANALYSIS
The nodal analysis method is applied as follows:
1. Determine the number of nodes within the network.
2. Pick a reference node, and label each remaining node with a
subscripted value of voltage: V1, V2, and so on.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at each node except the reference.
Assume that all unknown currents leave the node for each application
of Kirchhoff’s current law.

In other words, for each node, don’t be influenced by the direction that
an unknown current for another node may have had. Each node is to
be treated as a separate entity, independent of the application of
Kirchhoff’s current law to the other nodes.

4. Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.

Example:1 Apply nodal analysis to the network of
Fig. 8.40
Solution:
Steps 1 and 2: The network has two nodes, as
shown in Fig. 8.41.
The lower node is defined as the reference
node at ground potential (zero volts), and the
other node as V1, the voltage from node 1 to
ground.
Step 3: I1 and I2 are defined as leaving the node
in Fig. 8.42, and Kirchhoff’s current law is
applied as follows:
• EXAMPLE : 2 Apply nodal analysis to the
network of Fig. 8.43.
• Solution 1:
• Steps 1 and 2: The network has three nodes,
as defined in Fig. 8.44, with the bottom node
again defined as the reference node (at
ground potential, or zero volts), and the other
nodes as V1 and V2.
• Step 3: For node V1 the currents are defined as
shown in Fig. 8.45, and Kirchhoff’s current law
is applied:
• Mathcad Solution:
• EXAMPLE 3: Determine the nodal voltages for
the network of Fig. 8.48.
• Solution:
• Steps 1 and 2: As indicated in Fig. 8.49
• Step 3: Included in Fig. 8.49 for the node V1.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law:
• For node V2 the currents are defined as in Fig.
8.50.
• EXAMPLE : Write the nodal equations for the
network of Fig. 8.53.
• Solution:
• Step 1: The figure is redrawn with assigned
subscripted voltages in Fig. 8.54.
• Steps 2 to 4:
• EXAMPLE: Find the voltage across the
3-resistor of Fig. 8.55 by nodal analysis.
• Solution: Converting sources and choosing
nodes (Fig. 8.56), we have
• EXAMPLE : Using nodal analysis, determine
the potential across the 4- resistor in Fig. 8.57.
Solution 1: The reference and four subscripted voltage levels were
chosen as shown in Fig. 8.58.

A moment of reflection should reveal that for any difference in

potential between V1 and V3, the current through and the potential
drop across each 5- resistor will be the same.

Therefore, V4 is simply a mid voltage level between V1 and V3 and is

known if V1 and V3 are available.

We will therefore not include it in a nodal voltage and will redraw the
network as shown in Fig. 8.59.

Understand, however, that V4 can be included if desired, although four

nodal voltages will result rather than the three to be obtained in the
solution of this problem.
• EXAMPLE: Write the nodal equations and find
the voltage across the 2- resistor for the
network of Fig. 8.61.
• Solution: The nodal voltages are chosen as
shown in Fig. 8.62.
• EXAMPLE : Write the nodal equations and find
the voltage across the 2- resistor for the of Fig.
8.61.
• Solution: The nodal voltages are chosen as
shown in Fig. 8.62.
 Supernode
 On occasion there will be independent voltage sources in the
network to which nodal analysis is to be applied.
 In such cases we can convert the voltage source to a current source
(if a series resistor is present) and proceed as before, or we can
introduce the concept of a supernode and proceed as follows.
 Start as before and assign a nodal voltage to each independent node
of the network, including each independent voltage source as if it
were a resistor or current source.
 Then mentally replace the independent voltage sources with short-
circuit equivalents, and apply Kirchhoff’s current law to the defined
nodes of the network.
 Any node including the effect of elements tied only to other nodes is
referred to as a supernode (since it has an additional number of
terms).
 Finally, relate the defined nodes to the independent voltage sources
of the network, and solve for the nodal voltages.
 The next example will clarify the definition of supernode.
• EXAMPLE: Determine the nodal voltages V 1

and V of Fig. 8.51 using the concept of a super

2

node
`
• Solution: Replacing the independent voltage
source of 12 V with a short-circuit equivalent
will result in the network of Fig. 8.52.
• Even though the mental application of a short-
circuit equivalent is discussed above, it would
be wise in the early stage of development to
redraw the network as shown in Fig. 8.52.
• The result is a single supernode for which
Kirchhoff’s current law must be applied.
• Be sure to leave the other defined nodes in
place and use them to define the currents
from that region of the network.
• In particular, note that the current I3 will leave
the supernode at V1 and then enter the same
supernode at V2.
• It must therefore appear twice when applying
Kirchhoff’s current law, as shown below: