ONE-DIMENSIONAL

FLOW
Chapter 3
 3.1 Introduction
■ Chuck Yeager (Bell XS-1) (a) M=1.06; Shock
almost Normal (b) M = 1.45; Shock is Oblique

Normal shock
In real vehicle geometry, The flow
will be axisymmetric One dimensional flow
 Normal & Oblique Shock

■ Portions of Shock Wave which are ■ We will study flows which have constant area
perpendicular to Freestream – Normal or almost constant areas – 1 D flows
■ Classical example of 1D flow ■ Oblique shocks will then be studied
■ Flow variables vary with x only

The variation of
area A=A(x) is
gradual

Neglect the Y
and Z flow
variation
Modus Operandi
■ Normal Shocks in Chapter 3
– We will convert Partial Differential Equations studied in Chapter 2 to
simple Algebraic equations
■ In addition we will study 1D flow with friction (FRICTION) – Fanno Line Flow
– Analysis of flow thru long pipes
■ We will also study 1D flow with Heat Addition (RADIATION) – Rayleigh Line
Flow
– Effect of burning in a jet engine combustion
■ Oblique Shocks in Chapter 4
■ Quasi 1D flow will be studied in Chapter 5
 3.2 Steady One-dimensional flow
equation

Shock wave

 Flow properties change as function of x as the gas flows thru the region.
 Assume that the dissipation occurs at the shock and the flow up stream and
downstream of the shock are uniform.
 Assumptions::
1. Left & Rt area is same.
2. Flow is Steady.
3. Body forces are absent.
4. Viscous effect is neglected.
5. Flow properties are function of x Only

 The Continuity Equation:

L.H.S of C.V
(Continuity equation
for steady 1-D flow)
 The Momentum Equation:
 => Remember the physics of momentum equation is the
time rate of change of momentum of a body equals to the
net force acting on it.
 The energy equation (remember h = e+p.Vol)

Physical principle of the energy equation is the energy is

the energy is conserved

Energy added to the C.V Energy taken away from the system to the
surrounding
 Fundamental Equations for 1D Comp Flow
1u1   2u2

P1  1u1  P2   2u2
2 2

2 2
u1 u2

Q  p1u1 A  1 (e1  )u1 A  p2u2 A   2 (e2  )u2 A
2 2

 Algebraic Equations instead of complicated Partial Differential Equations….. Easy 1D

 Steady
 No viscous forces, No body forces (hence no work done by
viscous & body forces)
 Sound Wave
■ Imagine a Patakha detonates nearby
■ Energy absorbed by nearby air molecules
■ Transfer energy to surrounding molecules
■ Results in propagation of energy in space
■ This wave of energy travels thru Air at vel that must be related to mean molecular velocity
■ Through the wave, energy increase cause P, T, rho to change slightly
■ Your ear picks up pressure variation – Sound
■ Such weak wave is Sound wave
■ Our purpose is to find how fast it propagates thru Air – Speed of Sound
■ Sound wave is moving at speed a thru gas
■ As we ride along wave, we see that air ahead of wave moves towards the wave at speed a
■ Because there are changes in flow properties thru the wave, the flow behind the wave moves away
at different velocity
■ However changes are small, hence weak wave
■ If changes are thru the wave are strong, it is Shock wave, which propagates at higher vel than
speed of sound
 1 2

A sound wave, by definition, i.e., weak

wave
( Implies that the irreversible, dissipative
conduction are negligible)

Wave front

 Continuity Equation
 Momentum equation

1  d 
 4
  dP 

No heat addition + reversible 1 dv

   1
v dP
General equation
valid for all gas

Isentropic compressibility
For a calorically prefect gas, the isentropic relation becomes

For prefect gas, not valid for chemically resting gases or real gases

Ideal gas equation of state:

Form Kinetic Theory:

Speed of sound is ¾th of average molecular velocity

a for air at standard sea level = 340.9 m/s = 1117 ft/s

Mach Number The physical meaning of M

Subsonic flow Kinetic energy

Sonic flow Internal energy

supersonic flow
 3.3 Speed of sound and Mach number

Mach angle μ

Wave front called

“ Mach Wave”
Always stays inside the Always stays outside the
family of circular sound family of circular sound
waves waves
 3.4 Some Conveniently Defined Parameters
Imagine: Take this fluid element at pt A and Adiabatically slow it
down (if M>1) or speed it up (if M<1) until its Mach number is 1;
its temp will change to T*. New value of temp and speed of sound
is T* and a*

Actual p, T are static values

Real Mach Number = M=V/a

Characteristic Mach number = M*= V/a*
In the same spirit, imagine to slow down the fluid elements isentropically to zero
velocity ,

total temperature or stagnation temperature

total pressure or stagnation pressure

Stagnation speed of sound

Total or stagnation density
 3.5 Alternative Forms of the 1-D Energy
Equation
= 0 (adiabatic Flow)
Calorically perfect
P1 a u1 p  r RTP2
2 2
h= CpT and Cp= R r and u2
( )  ( )
r  1 1 2  r 1 2 2

At pt A, speeds are a* can be calculated from given

a and u. At a & u.
imaginary sonic
condition, u2=a* • Actual flow field itself does not have to be adiabatic from pt A to pt B.
• Adiabatic process is just in our minds as part of the definition of a*
• Above eqn applied at pt A gives value of a* associated at pt A
 Definition of a*
■

And then a* is constant everywhere::: Very important

 Definition of Stagnation Properties
Total conditions – (Pt 1 at u and then at rest isentropically or u=0)

Adiabatic flow
Note the flowfield is not necessary to be isentropic

Isentropic ----- REFER TABLE A.1 (APPENDIX A)

However for the above relation, flowfield is necessary to be isentropic

If not →
If isentropic → are constant values everywhere
Relation between a* and ao
Relation between M* and M

If M → ∞

or

= 1 if M=1
<1 if M < 1
>1 if M > 1
EX. 32
 3.6 Normal shock relations
The shock is a very thin region , Shock thickness ~ 0 (a few molecular mean free paths ~ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 cm for
standard condition)
( A discontinuity across which the flow properties suddenly change)

Ideal gas Calorically

1 2 Continuity E.O.S perfect
Known To be solved

Momentum

adiabatic
Energy

Variable : 5 equations
Dividing momentum equation by continuity equation

Above eqn is combination of continuity and momentum eqn while using definition of a. Using
alternate form of Energy equation a  u    1 a
2 2
*2

 1 2 2(  1)

Since flow is adiabatic, a* is constant everywhere

Prandtl Relation:

Note:

1. Mach number behind the normal shock is always subsonic

2. This is a general result , not just limited to a calorically perfect gas
Solving for M*

Using above M* and for before and after shock gives

For calorically perfect gas, M behind shock is function of only M ahead of shock. As M1 increases,
normal shock becomes stronger and M2 correspondingly becomes less than 1. 𝑀1 = 1

Special case 1. 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟏 𝑴𝟐 = 𝟏 Infinitely weak normal shock . i.e.,: Mach wave

2. 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟏 Which is 0.378 for air

After Shock relations in terms of M1
Note : for a calorically perfect gas , with γ=constant

are functions of 𝑀1 only. Valid till M1=5

Real gas effects

For M1 tending to infinity:

What happens if M1 = 1? ………. Mach wave

Mathematically equations of hold for

Physically , only 𝑀1 > 1 is possible.

The 2nd law of thermodynamics

Entropy change depends only on incoming M and it should be greater than 1. Why does entropy increase
across a shock wave ?

𝑢1 𝑢2
Large ( small)
Dissipation can not be neglected
𝜌1 𝜌1

entropy
 𝑇𝑜 is constant
across a stationary
normal shock wave
To ≠ const for a moving shock

The total pressure decreases across a

Note: 1. 2. shock wave

Ex.3.4 Ex.3.5 Ex 3.6 Ex 3.7

 3.7 Hugoniot Equation
Previous results across Shock were in terms of velocity and M.
Static pressure increase across a shock, wave can be visualized in only thermodynamic
variables.

Hugoniot equation

It relates only thermodynamic quantities across the shock.

General relation holds for a perfect gas , chemically reacting gas, real gas.
Hugoniot equation
We can plot the Hugoniot curve for the known initial pressure-volume conditions for
various pressure-volume conditions after normal shock. Hence Hugoniot curve, in
principle, joins all the possible points on p-v plane starting from a known point on p-v
plane. To generate such a plot we have to modify the Hugoniot equation by expressing the
internal energy in terms of the pressure and volume as,

Using this expression, we can get all the possible values of v2 for given values P1, P2 and
v1and hence we can plot the p-v diagram or Hugoniot curve for normal shock. The line
joining initial point and any point on the curve specifies particular massflow rate and hence
a particular freestream Mach number.
 Slope of curve
representing
isentropic
compression can be
calculated as,
The change in Internal energy divided by change in
specific volume is equal to mean pressure across shock

Hugoniot curve the locus of all possible p-v

condition behind normal shocks of various
strength for one specific set of upstream values
of P1 and v1 (point 1).
Each point represents a different shock with a
different upstream velocity u1
Consider a specific shock with specific value of
upstream velocity u1. How to find point 2 which
corresponds to this shock?
For a specific 𝑢1 using this equation , momentum equation and
v=1/rho

LHS is slope of Straight line thru pts 1 and 2

Calculate RHS (known upstream vel and sp vol) and by drawing st line thru point 1 with
this slope will intersect Hugoniot curve at pt 2. Pt 2 represents conditions behind
particular shock with upstream values of u1, p1, v1.
For a calorically prefect gas; (e=cvT, T=pv/R)
 3.8 One-Dimensional Flow with Heat Addition

■ Some action occurs due to which pt 1 & 2 within CV have different flow
properties
– Could be due to Normal shock wave (increase in entropy thru viscosity
& thermal conduction inside shock)
– Also by other effects such as heat addition ---- governing phenomenon
in turbojet & ramjet engines
– Could be due to friction too
 3.8 One-Dimensional Flow with Heat Addition
Consider the control volume as shown in Fig. for 1D flow with heat addition. The fluid flow
of this kind is called as Rayleigh flow. Here station 1 is representative station before heat
addition while station 2 is representative station after heat addition.
q

u1 u2
p1 p2
ρ1 ρ2
T1 T2

A
+E.O.S

Assume calorically perfect gas h  CPT

The effect of heat addition is to directly change the total temperature of the flow
Heat addition To
Heat extraction To
Lets represent the ratios of static and total properties in terms of upstream (station 1) and
downstream (station 2) Mach number and specific heat ratio. Lets consider the momentum
equation,
 T2 P2 1
Also from ideal gas assumption 
T1 P1  2
But ρ1u1 = ρ2u2
 From these two ratios we
can find out change in
entropy
T2 P
s2  s1  Cp ln  R ln 2
T1 P1
 Given: all condition in 1 and q

𝑇02 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇02 − 𝑇01 )

𝑀2 By trial and error

𝑃2 𝑇2 𝜌2
, , ....
𝑃1 𝑇1 𝜌1

To facilitate the tabulation of these expression , let state 1 be a reference state at

which Mach number 1 occurs.
 Using sonic condition M1=1 as reference condition & referencing
properties as ‘*’
𝑃1 = 𝑃∗ 𝑇1 = 𝑇 ∗ 𝜌1 = 𝜌∗ 𝑃01 = 𝑃0 ∗ 𝑇01 = 𝑇0 ∗

Flow properties at any other value of M are obtained by putting M1=1 & M2=M:
𝑀1 = 1 𝑀2 = 𝑀
𝑟
𝑃 1+𝛾 𝑃0 1+𝛾 2+ 𝛾−1 2
𝑀 𝑟−1
= =
𝑃∗ 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 𝑃0 ∗ 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 𝛾+1

𝑇 1+𝛾
2 𝑇0
=𝑀 2
𝑇0 ∗ Table A.3.
𝑇∗ 1 + 𝛾𝑀2
𝛾 + 1 𝑀2
For γ=1.4
2
= 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀
1 + 𝛾𝑀2 2
𝜌 1 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 ∗
𝑇 𝑃
= 𝑠 − 𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝 ln ∗ − 𝑅 ln ∗
𝜌∗ 𝑀2 1 + 𝛾 𝑇 𝑃
■ Remember previously ‘*’ was defined as Characteristic value where flow was slowed or
accelerated to M=1 ADIABATICALLY.
■ In this case, heat is added – NON ADIABATIC… NO MORE ISENTROPIC
■ Let M1=3 and q1 is added between Stn 1 and 2 and sufficient heat q1 is added to attain
M2=1.5
■ Station 1: Since M1=3, then heat q1* is added to slow it down to Mach 1; now T*, P*, * are the
conditions ------ here q1*>q1 since decel from M=3 to M=1
■ Station 2: Since M2=1.5, then heat q2* is added to slow it down to Mach 1; now T*, P*, * which
are same as those at Station 1 despite q2* and q2* are different
■ This is why the starred quantities are simply reference quantities that are fixed values for a
given flow entering duct with heat addition [ refer Table A3]
Adding heat to a
supersonic flow
⇒ M ↓
 q

1 2

Supersonic flow subsonic flow

M1>1 M1<1
(M2<M1) (M2>M1)
M
(P2>P1)
P
(T2>T1)
T

(T02>T01)
T0
(P02<P01)
P0
(U2<U1)
u
 Heat addition drives the Mach number to 1---- decelerate supersonic &
accelerate subsonic
T B
T*

1.0 A Mollier diagram (enthalpy vs entropy)

Raleigh curve, drawn for set of given
initial condition

Rayleigh line ∴ At point A , M=1

S  S*
Cp
 h
Conditions in region 1 given by Pt 1.
Then particular Rayleigh curve thru Pt 1 is locus of all
Heating
A (M=1) possible states in region 2.
cooling
M<1 Each pt on curve corresponds to different value of q
heating added or taken away.
1’ cooling
Point A corresponds to max entropy and flow is sonic.
M>1 Lower branch corresponds to supersonic.
1
Upper branch corresponds to subsonic flow.
s

If flow in region corresponds to Pt 1 then heat addition will cause conditions in

region 2 to move closer to pt A and decrease in M towards 1.

As q is made larger, conditions in region 2 get closer and closer to pt A.

Finally for certain value of q, flow will become sonic in region 2 and flow is said to
be Choked because any further increase in q is not possible without drastic
revision in conditions at point 1.
h
If flow in region corresponds to Pt 1’
then heat addition will cause conditions
in region 2 to move closer to pt A and
Heating increase in M towards 1.
A (M=1)
cooling As q is made larger, conditions in
M<1
heating region 2 get closer and closer to pt A.
1’ cooling Finally for certain value of q, flow will
become sonic in region 2 and flow is
said to be Choked because any further
1 M>1 increase in q is not possible.

From Rayleigh curve, decelerate a

s supersonic flow to subsonic by first
heating it until sonic flow and then
Just as in case of Normal shock, heat cooling it thereafter.
addition to a flow (sub or supersonic)
always decrease total pressure. This Similarly subsonic flow can be made
effect is of prime importance in supersonic by heating it until sonic flow
design of jet engines is reached and cooling it thereafter.
For supersonic flow:
Heat addition → move close to A M → 1

→ for a certain value of q , M=1 the flow is said to be “ choked ”

∵ Any further increase in q is not possible without a drastic revision of the upstream conditions in
region 1
3.9 One Dimensional Flow with Friction

- 1D compressible inviscid flow in a

duct
-In reality , all fluids are viscous and
friction between stationary wall and
moving fluid causes properties to
change.
-If frictional effect is modelled as
shear stress at the wall acting on
fluid with uniform properties over
any cross section
-Describing mean properties of
frictional flow in const area ducts
-Analogous to 1-D flow with heat
addition.
 Momentum equation

Shear stress varies with distance x

along the duct. Without
complicating integration, taking limit
as L shrinks to dx

Integrating between x= x1 (M=M1) and x=x2 (M=M2)

Above relates M at 2 different sections to integrated effect of friction between the sections
∵ adiabatic , To = const
Analogous to 1-D flow with heat addition using sonic reference condition.

IF we define x = L* are the station where , M = 1

Above Eqns are tabulated vs M in Table Table A.4

1-D adiabatic flow with friction
Supersonic flow Subsonic flow
M1>1 M1<1
(M2<M1) (M2>M1)
M
(P2>P1)
P
(T2>T1)
T
unchanged unchanged
T0
(P02<P01)
P0
u (u2<u1)

ρ
Friction always drive M to 1 – decelerate Supersonic & accelerate subsonic
Each pt on curve between pt a and a
corresponds to certain duct length L. As L

Fanno line is increased, conditions at the exit move

closer to pt a.
ds < 0 P At certain value of L, flow becomes sonic,
choked and flow is choked because any further
increase in L is not possible.
Eg. If inlet conditions at pt 1 were
obtained thru expansion thru a supersonic

ds > 0 nozzle and if L were larger than that

allowed for attaining Mach 1 at exit; then
normal shock would form inside nozzle
and duct inlet conditions would suddenly
become subsonic.
 Differential form
of Ideal gas eqn

using mass differential form of mass

conservation equation, we get,

lets re-express the terms du/u and dT/T

Integrating between x= x1 (M=M1) and x=x2 (M=M2)

Above relates M at 2 different sections to integrated effect of friction between

the sections