Chapter 5: Constitutive Law for

Metal Deformation
Issues to Address:
• What is a constitutive equation?

• When many of the simple constitutive equations fail

• What is a state-variable model?

• Path independence

• Foundation of a constitutive model for metal

deformation
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Chapter 5: Constitutive Law for
Metal Deformation
Take-Away Concepts:
• The simplest constitutive equations for deformation
include strain as an explicit variable, which is shown to
be problematic.

• A key test for a constitutive equation for deformation

is the ability to describe temperature and strain-rate
dependencies.

• Path independence is required for an internal state

variable constitutive model

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Chapter 5: Constitutive Law for
Metal Deformation
Take-Away Concepts (Cont.):

• A simple state variable model for metal deformation

includes separate terms for the kinetics of yield at a
given state and for the kinetics of evolution.

• Dynamic strain aging and deformation twinning

introduce deformation mechanisms not modeled with the
models introduced up to this point.

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Constitutive Law
A constitutive law is an equation that relates variables or
physical quantities and offers predictive capability.

Power-law hardening:   K  n relates true stress to

true strain (but predicts a zero stress at zero strain)

Ludwik equation:   o K  n

The K in these equations can be assigned a temperature

and strain-rate dependence.

The most common constitutive laws for metal deformation

are of the form:   f  , , T 

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Johnson-Cook Model
One popular constitutive model is the Johnson-Cook model:

  T  T m 
  A  B  n 1   r
  1  C ln  
  Tm  Tr  
Where A, B, n, Tr, m, and C are constants and Tm is the
melting temperature.
The model constants for an austenitic stainless steel are:
  T  294 K  
0.75

  218MPa  2289 MPa  1  

1.125
  1  0.0.032 ln  
  1231K  

Johnson and Cook, 7th Intn. Symp. on

Ballistics, The Hague, 541, 1983, 541.

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Johnson-Cook Model Predictions
Predictions for the austenitic stainless steel at three strain
rate and temperature combinations:
1200
RT and 100 s-1
1000
500 K and 1000 s-1
True 800
Stress
MPa 600

400
RT and 0.001 s-1
200

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
True Strain

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Johnson-Cook Model Predictions
But what are the predictions when an abrupt change of test
conditions occurs?
Example: RT and 0.001 s-1 to a strain of 0.15 followed by
an increase in strain rate to 100 s-1:
1200

1000 Stress level

RT and 100 s-1
True 800 following the strain
Stress
MPa 600
rate increase
immediately jumps
400
RT and 0.001 s-1
to the stress level
200 for an entire test at
0 100 s-1.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
True Strain
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 What is Observed for Such a
Strain-rate Jump?
Follansbee performed a related experiment in Copper:
300

B
Stress level
B: 9400 s-1 A following the strain
True 200 rate decrease for
Reload
Stress
0.001 s-1 Sample B does
MPa
A: 0.0001 s-1
not fall to the
100
stress level for an
entire test at the
Prestrain
0
lower strain rate.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
True Strain
Follansbee , in Impact Loading and Dynamic Behaviour of Materials, Chiem,
Kunze, and Meyer, eds., Informationsgesellschaft, Verlag, 1988, 315.
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 What is Observed for Such a
Strain-rate Jump?
The observation following the strain-rate jump offers further
evidence that hardening is also strain-rate (and temperature)
dependent.
Constitutive laws of the form:   f  , , T  can not account
for this.
A implication of this is that it is difficult for constitutive laws of
the form   f  , , T  to account for true variations with strain
rate and temperature:

   
  ,T and T  ,

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 State Variable Models
The term “state” refers to “the totality of macroscopic properties
associated with a system”.
The ideal gas law is a good example of a state variable model.
Pv RT
where the state variables are P (the pressure), v (the specific
volume, in m3/mole), and T (the temperature). R is the gas
constant.
Implicit in the ideal gas law is the notion of path independence;
the state of a gas is completely defined by its current P, v, and T.
How the gas travels from P1, v1, and T1, to P2, v2, and T2, is
unimportant

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Path Independence
Plot of P versus v for an ideal gas showing isotherms.
T increasing
For a gas going from 1 to 4, 9 x 105
T (K) isotherms
whether the path is
from 1 to 3 to 4, or 1 3
from 1 to 2 to 4, or P (Pa)
5
from 1 directly to 4,
does not affect the final state 4

at 4.
2
0
And, when the gas goes from 0 v (m3 / mole) 0.04
4 to 5, the path to 4 doesn’t
affect the path to 5.

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Path Independence
If  in   f  , , T  were a state variable, then two samples at
the same strain (and strain rate and temperature) would be
identical.  (MPa)
B: 9,400 s-1
The experiment of Follansbee is A: 0.00010 s-1
redrawn showing a state 1 (annealed
starting condition) and a state 2
(15% strain) and RT.
0.15
0 
But the two samples in this case
295
are not in the same state
1 2
because when reloaded (at a T (K)
strain rate of 0.001 s-1) sample
B (reached state 2 at the higher strain rate) was stronger than
sample A.
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Introducing a State-Variable Constitutive
Model for Metal Deformation
Instead of   f  , , T  , replace  with the mechanical
threshold stress ˆ
  f ˆ , , T 
The motivation for this expression comes from equation
derived in Chapter 4 to describe the temperature and strain
rate dependence of the (reload) yield stress:

 kT  o  ̂
  ˆ 1  ln 
 G    

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength 0 

T ln 108 s 1  
 Introducing a State-Variable Constitutive
Model for Metal Deformation
Couple   f ˆ , , T  with an evolution – or strain hardening –
law:
dˆ
 f ˆ , , T 
d
The motivation for this expression comes from the Voce law
introduced earlier: 250

̂ s
200
dˆ  ˆ   II
  II 1   ̂
d  ˆ s  , T   (MPa)
150

100

The difference now is that 50

ˆ s  200 MPa
it is evolution of ˆ that is  II  1000 MPa
0
explicitly considered. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Why Evolve ̂ ?
̂
̂ was described as an intrinsic measure
of the strength, since it is the stress 
required to overcome the obstacle in the
absence of thermal activation.
What obstacle population is of interest ? 0 
T ln 108 s 1  
Chapter 3 associated strain hardening with the increasing
stored dislocation density.
If there are no other mechanistic contributions to the strength
(e.g., from solution hardening) then ̂ is the mechanical
threshold stress characterizing the interaction of dislocation
with the stored dislocation density.
In this case, it is appropriate to track the evolution of ̂ .
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Adding an Athermal Stress
The kinetic equation for the temperature and strain-rate
dependence of the yield stress is:
 kT  o 
  ˆ 1  ln  
 G   
The previous chart equated ̂ with the stored dislocation
density. In annealed metals, this can initially be zero.
But, grain boundaries can introduce an obstacle population
that is not thermally activated (the stress required to
overcome this does not vary with temperature).
An athermal stress a is intro-  kT  o 
   a  ˆ 1  ln 
duced to account for these, and  G   
the governing equation becomes: or,    a  s , T  ˆ
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Putting the Pieces Together

Yield Kinetics Evolution Kinetics

 kT  o  dˆ  ˆ 
   a  ˆ 1  ln    II 1  
 G    d  ˆ s  , T  
   II 
ˆ  ˆ s 1  exp   
  ˆ s 
T 
ln ˆ s  ln ˆ so  ln
ACS so
Combined

   II   kT  o 
   a  ˆ s 1  exp    1  ln 
  ˆ s   G   

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Model Predictions
Parameter Value Units
Hypothetical metal with
G 1.13x10-18 J
model parameters shown: o 108 s-1
a 50 MPa
Predictions at three
 II 1000 MPa
temperature and strain
ACS 12000 K
rate combinations. so 108 s-1
̂ so 1000 MPa
150 K / 1.0 s-1
300

   II 
294 K / 0.001 s-1    a  ˆ s 1  exp   
 ˆ s
True 200
Stress  
MPa
500 K / 0.0001 s-1  kT  o 
100
x 1  ln 
 G   
T 
ln ˆ s  ln ˆ so 
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 ln
True Strain ACS so
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Model Predictions
The governing equations easily enable predictions
following a path change.
Example: 150K and 1.0 s-1 to a strain or 0.20 followed by
a change to 500K and a strain rate of 0.0001 s-1.
400
Note the immediate
stress drop Path Change
300
True
following the path Stress 150 K / 1.0 s-1
change as well as MPa 200
the lower rate of
strain hardening. 100
500 K / 0.0001 s-1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
True Strain
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Deviations from Model Behavior
Material behavior can be complex and fall outside the
assumed model analysis.
Example: Measurements by
400
Murty in mild steel. Note:
1) the curve at the higher 373 K
temperature rises above True 300
RT
Stress
that at the lower (MPa)
200
temperature,
2) the spikes in the curve at
the higher temperature, and 100
1.36x10-4 s-1
3) the yield drop in both curves
0
and the extended yield 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
behavior in the curve at the True Strain
higher temperature. Murty, Letters to Nature, 308, 1984, 51.

Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength

 Deviations from Model Behavior
Example: Measurements by Murty in mild steel.

1) the curve at the higher Evidences dynamic strain

temperature rises above aging, or the movement of
that at the lower solute atmospheres with
temperature, dislocations

2) the spikes in the curve at Often referred to as

the higher temperature,
and
3) the yield drop in both
curves and the extended
yield behavior in the curve
at the higher temperature.
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
“serrated” yielding which is
a byproduct of dynamic
strain aging.
Reflects an upper and
lower yield point and yield-
point elongation observed
in many materials.
 Deviations from Model Behavior
Example: Deformation Twinning

Example: Measurements by
Chen and Gray in Zirconium.
500
Note: the yield stress ceases
to increase with decreasing 400

temperature and approaches 300

a constant value.  MPa 
200

100
Deformation twinning
becomes a dominant 0
0 5000 10000 15000
deformation mechanism
T ln 107 s 1  
in this material at low
Chen and Gray, J. Phys. IV France 7,
temperatures. 1997, Colloque C3, C3-741
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength
 Deformation Twinning
Erickson and Low recorded the yield stress in a 0.04% C
steel and correlated the behavior with the observation of
deformation twins.
1200
Twinning followed by
yield point

800
Stress Twinning
(MPa) only Yield point only
400
Yield point
followed by
twinning
0
0 100 200 300
Temperature (K)
Erickson and Low, Acta Metal. 5, 1957, 405
Follansbee – Fundamentals of Strength