Machine Foundations

Types of Machines and Unbalanced Forces

• Rotating machines
• High operating speed: 3,000 to 12,000 rpm (50 to
200Hz)
• Unbalanced (centripetal) forces are created when
centre of rotating mass does not coincide with
the axis of rotation
• Offset should be minor under manufactured conditions
but is mostly unavoidable and could increase during
operation for different reasons including wear and tear
• Produce sinusoidal (harmonic) unbalanced forces
• For a single-mass vibration in a machine with an
operating speed, ω, the centripetal force when
resolved gives
Ph (t )  me e 2 sin t  Ph 0 sin t
Pv (t )  me e 2 cos t  Pv 0 cos t
Types of Machines …
• In case of two shafts with equal unbalanced
masses rotating at the same speed, the
mechanism can be so arranged that the net
horizontal force component is zero, whereas
the vertical component is doubled. Hence,
Pv (t )  2me e 2 cos t  Pv 0 cos t
• In both the single- and double-shaft cases, we
note that the force amplitude is not frequency
dependent and is directly proportional to the
unbalanced mass, me, its offset, e, and the
square of the excitation frequency, ω.
Types of Machines …
• Reciprocating machines
• Low operating speed/frequency: usually <
600rpm (10Hz)
• A piston moving in and out of a cylinder and
interacting with fluid through a crank
mechanism driven by a rotating crankshaft.
• Individual inertia forces from each cylinder and
throw produce unbalanced harmonic and
periodic forces
• E.g.: steam engines, compressors, diesel
engines
Types of Machines …
• Reciprocating machines…
• The vertical motion of the reciprocating piston is
z p  DB  L1  cos  
• Using the geometric data and some simplifications, this takes the
form
 r2   r 
z p   r    r  cos t  cos 2t 
 4L   4L 
• The acceleration is obtained by differentiating as:
 r 
zp  r 2  cos t  cos 2t 
 L 
• The acceleration is thus generally periodic.
• The first term varies with the machine frequency and is called the
primary term; the second term varies at twice that frequency and is
called the secondary term
• For a very long connecting rod, r/L is so small that the secondary term
becomes insignificant and the acceleration varies harmonically
Types of Machines …
• Reciprocating machines….
• The vertical and horizontal movements of the crank pin at C
is
z C  r 1  cos t ; y C  r sin t

• The corresponding accelerations are

zC  r 2 cos t ; yC  r 2 sin t
• Note that while the wrist pin, P, of the piston follows a
vertical path, and the crank pin, P, a circular path, all other
points on the connecting rod follow elliptical paths. Thus,
exact evaluation of the paths of the rod is complicated. For
this reason, the rod mass is lumped at P and at C as mrec and
mrot, respectively.
Types of Machines…
• Reciprocating machines….
• Then, the total vertical and horizontal inertia forces become
r2 2
Fz t   mrec  mrot r cos t  mrec
2
 cos 2t
L
Fy t   mrec r 2 sin t
• Note that the vertical force varies periodically because of the
secondary term, whereas the horizontal force varies
harmonically
• Similarly, the torque acting on the crank shaft (around the x-
axis through O) can be determined. It is given by
 r 
M t   mrec 2 r 2 sin t 
3r
 cos t  cos 2t 
 2L 2L 
• These unbalanced forces are ultimately transferred to the
foundation
Types of Machines…
• Impulsive/impact machines
• Operate with regulated impact or shock
• Ram weights can vary from few to over 150 kN
• Produce impact loads of 60 to 150
blows/minute
• E.g.: forging hammers, metal presses
Types of Machine Foundations
• A suitable foundation is selected depending
on the type of machine
• For compressors and reciprocating
machines, a block foundation is generally
provided
• Such a foundation consist of a pedestal/pier
supported by a thick footing
• If two or more similar machines are to be
installed, a single mat may be preferred.
Such a foundation is also known as
combined block-type foundation
• Block foundations are normally modelled as
rigid foundations for analysis
Types of Machine Foundations
• If a relatively lighter foundation is
desired so that the natural frequency
is higher for the same machine, a
box- or caisson-type foundation may
be used
Types of Machine Foundations
• Table-top foundations are elevated
and commonly provided for large
turbine-driven equipment such as
electric generators
• Elevation allows for placing ducts,
pipes, etc. under the equipment
• They are best modelled as flexible
structures because several interacting
structural elements are involved
Types of Machine Foundations
• Isolators in form of springs and
dampers located at the top of the
columns are sometimes introduced
to reduce vibration (upper)

• Occasionally, some machines are

mounted directly on springs attached
to the block (lower)
Types of Machine Foundations
• Any of the above types of
foundations can also be supported on
piles if the shallow material is too
soft to fulfil the requirements.
Information and Data Required
• Weight of the machine and ancillaries
• Magnitude, characteristics and location
of dynamic loads
• Initial foundation dimensions: normally
supplied by manufacturer
• Pertinent soil properties: static and
dynamic
• Appropriate model and method of
solution
• Criteria for design
Design Criteria
• The requirements with respect to static loads
are identical with those for common
foundations
• Safe against shear failure
• Tolerable settlement
• The main requirements with respect to
dynamic loads include:
• There should be no resonance; a zone of resonance
is generally defined so that the natural frequency of
the system is beyond that zone (thus, system may
be low tuned or high tuned);
• the natural frequency should also not be a whole
number multiple of the operating frequency to
avoid resonance at higher harmonics
Design Criteria
• The amplitudes at the operating frequencies should not exceed the
limiting amplitudes specified by the manufacturer. This must be
satisfied in addition to the requirement with respect to the natural
frequencies.
• The vibrations must not be damaging to other sensitive
installations in the area nor annoying to persons operating around.
• Limited amplitudes can be specified in terms of displacement,
velocity or acceleration
• Richart’ (1962) criteria are as shown on the chart of next slide
• Braxter and Bernhart have also proposed tabular criteria in terms
of velocity amplitudes as shown (next slide)
Modelling: Block Foundation
• A typical block foundation on a soil formation is
modelled as rigid
• It has six degrees of freedom in the Cartesian
coordinate system: 3 translations and 3 rotations
• With proper arrangement, the vertical translation
and the rotation with respect to the vertical
centroidal axis (torsion) may be considered
uncoupled from the rest. This is achieved by aligning
the centroid of the foundation interface with the
system center of gravity along a vertical line
• The horizontal translation in the x-direction and the
rotation with respect to the y-axis are coupled;
similarly, the translation along the y-axis and the
rotation with respect to the x-axis are coupled.
• Hence, one deals with two independent SDF
systems and two systems with coupled motions:
translation and rotation/rocking
SDF Model
• The vertical and the torsional vibrations can be easily
represented by a SDF oscillator. This is as shown in the figure
for the vertical vibration.
• The spring and dashpot arranged in parallel replace the soil;
their coefficients are needed.
• The historical development of the methods of analysis
follows the development of knowledge on dynamic SSI. They
include
• Barkan’s linear spring method (Barkan, 1962): now obsolete
• Elastic half-space analog method (Hseih, 1962; Lysmer and Richart,
1966): uses frequency dependent coefficients
• Impedance function method (Gazettas, 1983, 1991; Dobry and
Gazettas, 1985): generally frequency-dependent coefficients with
sound theoretical background
• The same model can also be used for the analysis of the
horizontal and rocking/yawing vibration separately, when the
coupling is negligible
SDF Model: Equation
• They are all governed by the same d.e.:
m j u j t   c j u j t   k j u j t   p j t 
• The index j stands for the mode of vibration at hand (vertical, horizontal,
torsional, rocking, etc.). Thus, uj can represent a translation or a rotation.
• The solution is:
u j t   u jc t   u jp t 
• Where ujc is the complementary solution and ujp is the particular solution.
• The former represents transient vibration that diminishes within a short time of the
start of the machine; thus less significant.
• the latter represents the steady-state vibration and exists as long as the machine is
operating; thus the main focus.
• The coefficients, mj, cj and kj, should be appropriately selected for the DoF at
hand:
• Note: for a rotational DoF, mj stands for the respective mass moment of inertia
SDF Model: Solution
• The two components of vibration for a harmonic loading are
given by

u jc t   e t  A cos  D t  BSin D t ;

u jp t   C cos  t  D sin  t

• Where A and B can be obtained from the initial conditions at

the starting of the machine, whereas C and D are obtained by
substituting ujp(t) back in the d.e. and comparing coefficients
of the sine and cosine terms. They are easily obtained as
P   2  P  1  2 
C 0  ; D 0  
k 
 1   
2 2
 2  
2
k 
 1   
2 2
 2  
2
SDF Model: Steady-state solution
• Dropping the index j for brevity reasons, the steady-state
vibration may also be presented more concisely using a single
harmonic with a phase lag as given below; Rd varies as shown
in the plot. Note that the force amplitude P0 is replaced by
the pertinent moment amplitude, M0, for a rotational DoF.
SDF Model: Required Parameters
• Obviously, the key to the above analysis is the determination
of
• The vibrating mass and mass moment of inertia;
• The unbalanced force causing the vibration; and
• The stiffness and damping coefficients at the interface with the soil.
• The mass or mass moment of inertia for a given DoF should
obviously include the contributions from
• The foundation;
• The machine; and
• An effective mass of soil that is believed to vibrate with the system
(optional).
• Suggested mass contributions from the soil are given next,
though not commonly used
SDF Model: Required Parameters
• Hseih (1962)
suggested theoretically
computed values of
soil mass and mass
moments of inertia as
given here
• Note that for the
rocking and torsional
vibrations, the
quantities are mass
moments of inertia
• r0 is equivalent radius
SDF Model: Required Parameters
• The unbalanced forces causing the vibration are briefly
discussed in the preceding slides.
• The stiffness and damping coefficients have perhaps been
the most difficult to quantify; they generally depend on a
number of factors:
• Frequency;
• Type of soil and stratification
• Foundation shape;
• Foundation embedment depth
• The significance of soil stiffness and damping was recognized
since the 1930s; extensive research on dynamic SSI has
shaded light meanwhile; quite a good deal of important
results s available.
SDF Model: Required Parameters
• A brief review of DSSI is pertinent at this stage to show how
the .

(Go through the DSSI slides 6 to 33 of SD)

SDF Model: Required Parameters
• Once all the necessary coefficients in the SDF equation are
determined as presented above, the solution follows readily.
• Quantities of interest are:
• Resonance frequency
• Damping
• response amplitudes
• at any frequency ratio
• at resonance (maximum response)
• When the frequency-independent spring and dashpot coefficients
obtained from the uniform elastic half-space theory are used, the
analysis approach is called the lumped-parameter approach.
• In cases, where the frequency dependence cannot be ignored
altogether, the analysis approach is sometimes referred to as the
impedance-functions approach.
SDF Model: Required Parameters
• However, both approaches in effect are based on lumped
parameters and impedance functions. Thus, there appears to exist
a misnomer.
• The lumped-parameter approach with frequency independent
spring and damping coefficients is found suitable for foundations
on thick, nearly homogenous soils, and for a frequency range up
to a0=1.5, which cover most machine operation frequencies.
• The quantities of interest can be calculated from the following
relations, which can be readily derived:
• Vertical Vibration:
• Natural frequency:


0.425 1  m
• Damping: ; Bz 
Bz 4 R 3
SDF Model: Required Parameters
• Vertical Vibration…
• Resonance frequency
• constant force-type excitation:  m   n 1  2 2

• Rotating mass-type excitation: m  n 1  2 2

• Vibration amplitude at resonance:

• constant force-type excitation:

• Rotating mass-type excitation:

SDF Model: Required Parameters
• Vertical Vibration…
• Vibration amplitude at frequencies other than resonance:

• constant force-type excitation:

• Rotating mass-type excitation:

SDF Model: Spring Coefficients
• Based on the idealization of a
uniform elastic half-space,
Whitman and Richart (1970)
suggested the use of the static
spring coefficients (frequency
independent) for a rigid cylindrical
foundation on the surface of the
half space. They are provided on
the next slide.
SDF Model: Spring Coefficients
SDF Model: Spring Coefficients
• For foundations of other shapes, the use
of an equivalent radius, ro, of a cylindrical
foundation has been suggested. The
expressions are easily determined by
equating areas and pertinent moments of
inertia of the actual and equivalent
cylindrical foundation (next slide).
• Alternatively, direct expressions as
suggested by some authors are also
provided for rectangular foundations in
the subsequent slides
• A more comprehensive compilation of
static spring coefficients including for
embedded foundations in a layered half-
space are available (Worku, 2007). The
basic concepts behind the derivation of
such formulas is also presented there.
SDF Model: Spring Coefficients
• These are given below for a rectangular
foundation:
• Translation:
LB
r02  LB  r0 


• Rocking (around the long side)

r04 LB 3 LB 3
  r0  4
4 12 3

• Torsion:
r04
2

12

LB 2

B  L2  r0  4
6

LB 2
B  L2 
SDF Model: Spring Coefficients
• Alternatively, static
spring coefficients
directly derived for
rectangular
foundations can be
used (Stewart, 2008;
Worku, 2007)
SDF Model: Damping
• The damping ratios are estimated
from the following proposed
relations:
• The dashpot
coefficients can be
determined from the
damping ratios using
ci  2 i k i m or
ci  2 i k i I i
SDF Model: Spring Coefficients
SDF Model: Spring Coefficients