Volcanic Gases

& Ash Cloud

Prepared by: Jonathan P. Valeros

Volcanic Gases
Volcanic gases are gases given off by active (or, at times,
by dormant) volcanoes. Volcanic gases produced our
atmosphere and our oceans.

Volcanic gases and ash billow from the peak crater of Mount
Ontake in central Japan Photo by Kyodo News via AP
Monitoring Volcanic Gases

Volcanic gases is essential to understanding

how and why volcanoes erupt.
Gases can be both:
• Dissolved in a magma chamber.
• Emitted from volcanoes at the surface.
 Monitoring Volcanic Gases
Dissolved Gases
The viscosity, temperature
and composition of the A magma chamber at high pressures below the
magma will determine
whether the eruption is
surface contains dissolved gases or volatiles.
explosive or effusive.
Explosive eruption
Volatiles are the group of
chemical elements and This is cause by the rapidly expanding gas bubbles
chemical compounds with
low boiling points. remain in contact with the liquid and cause the magma to
fragment into volcanic rock.
Viscosity
Effusive eruption
A measure of resistance to
flow in a liquid (water has
low viscosity while honey
If the bubbles can rise through the liquid and escape,
has a higher viscosity.) then the eruption will be more effusive and generate lava
flows like those in Hawai’i. It is the expansion of gases as
they rise to the surface that drives volcanic eruptions.
 Monitoring Volcanic Gases
Emitted Gases
The most abundant gases are:
• Water vapor (H2O
Once a volcano erupts, • Carbon dioxide (CO2)
gases are emitted and
released into the
atmosphere. During large
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2).
eruptions, gases have
caused global climate Secondary gases are also commonly emitted from
change. In other systems,
gases are emitted volcanoes are:
continuously into the
atmosphere from soils, • Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
volcanic vents, fumaroles
and
deposits.
hydrothermal
• Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
• Carbon monoxide (CO),
• hydrogen fluoride (HF).
 Emitted Gases
Water Vapor (H20)
The most abundant gas expelled during a volcanic
eruption is water vapor. Water vapor is not toxic and
because so much is expelled during an eruption, it can
Increased amounts of
water vapor in the benefit the planet by pulling water from deep within the
stratosphere can force
surface temperatures to
Earth and adding it to the water cycle.
rise, adding to the
warming of the Earth's However, there can be a downside to water vapor
surface, much like we
see when carbon dioxide emissions. According to researchers from the Department
is added to the
atmosphere by human of Meteorology at the University of Reading in Britain,
activities, such as
burning fossil fuels. water vapor emitted during a volcanic eruption can impact
climate change.
Emitted Gases
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Carbon Dioxide is another gas that is
commonly expelled during the volcanic
eruptions.
Volcanoes emit carbon dioxide in two
ways: during eruptions and through
underground magma. Carbon dioxide from
underground magma is released through
vents, porous rocks and soils, and water that
feeds volcanic lakes and hot springs.
Emitted Gases
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released from a volcano

when magma is relatively near the surface. If SO2 is
detected at a non-erupting volcano, it could be a
sign that it will erupt soon. By monitoring the
amount of SO2 being emitted from an active
volcano, it is possible to calculate the amount
of magma that is supplying the eruption.
Emitted Gases
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

When sulfur gases are released from

magma and encounter groundwater as they
rise, the sulfur can react with water and form
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Hydrogen sulfide can
be measured by collecting a gas sample then
analyzing the complete chemistry in a
laboratory.
 Emitted Gases
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
Sulfate aerosols are
mixtures of solid or
liquid particles that
include sulfuric acid.
Chlorine is emitted from volcanoes in the
form of hydrochloric acid (HCl), which breaks
The ozone layer begins
at 12 kilometers (7.2
miles) above the earth
down into chlorine and chlorine monoxide
s surface in temperate
latitudes. It is a shield (ClO) molecules.
that protects living
beings from the most
harmful of the Sun's
ultraviolet radiation
The chlorine atoms are added to man-
known as UV-B. In
high doses, UV-B produced chlorine already present in the
damages cellular DNA
in animals and plants. stratosphere. The reactive chlorine atoms
then proceed to destroy ozone.
Emitted Gases
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless,
odorless, and tasteless flammable gas that is
slightly less dense than air. It is toxic
to animals that use hemoglobin as an oxygen
carrier (both invertebrate and vertebrate)
when encountered in concentrations above
about 35 ppm.
Emitted Gases
Hydrogen Halides (HF, HCl and HBr)
Volcanoes can emit the halogens
fluorine, chlorine and bromine in the form of
hydrogen halides (HF, HCl and HBr). These
species are all strong acids and have high
solubility; therefore, they rapidly dissolve in
water droplets within volcanic plumes or the
atmosphere where they can potentially cause
acid rain.
 Volcanic Gas Measuring
Measuring Dissolved Volatiles in Rocks/Minerals/Inclusions

Volatiles play an important role in the

generation, evolution and eruption of magma.
Tephra
Mineral Inclusions
Materials of all
types and sizes that Pre-eruptive dissolved volatile contents
are erupted from a
crater or volcanic can be measured directly through the study of
vent and deposited
from the air.
melt inclusions (MI) and fluid inclusions (FI).
Plinian
An explosive eruption in Volcanic Gas Measuring
which a steady, turbulent
stream of fragmented Measuring Dissolved Volatiles in Rocks/Minerals/Inclusions
magma and magmatic
gases is released at a high
velocity from a vent. Large
volumes of tephra and tall
eruption columns are Five naturally glassy, bubble-
characteristic.
free MI of various sizes from
Plinian fallout deposit of the
Ignimbrite
Tara Ignimbrite, Chile. Image is
The rock formed by the
widespread deposition 700 microns.
and consolidation of ash
flows and Nuees
Ardentes. The term was
originally applied only to
densely welded deposits
Melt Inclusions
but now includes non-
welded deposits. Melt inclusions, incorporated into relatively
incompressible phenocryst hosts like quartz, can
retain the pre-eruptive volatile signature of the melt
during eruption.
 Volcanic Gas Measuring
Measuring Dissolved Volatiles in Rocks/Minerals/Inclusions

It is interesting to note
that much of what we
know about km-sized
magma bodies
comes from analyses of Fluid Inclusions
micrometer-sized
features! Fluid inclusions are remnant samples of very recent to ancient
fluids that existed within the magmatic system. Studies of fluid
inclusions allowed geologists to reconstruct the history of the host
rocks within which they are found.
 Volcanic Gas Measuring

Volcanic Emissions – Plumes

Measuring the rate at which a volcano releases gas or
This one is to brighten degasses, typically reported in metric tons per days, allows scientists
up your day. Smiiile! to get a glimpse of what is happening below the surface.
How much gas is emitted from a volcano during a certain time
period is directly related to the volume of magma that sits in the
subsurface reservoir.
 Direct Sampling
Crater
A steep-sided, usually
circular depression
formed by either
explosion or collapse at a
volcanic vent.

Vent
The opening at the
earth's surface through
which volcanic materials
issue forth. Gas sampling from Baker, 1981 Volcanic Vent or Furmarole
Silica
A chemical combination
of silicon and oxygen.
This technique is used to produce a detailed chemical
analysis of a specific fumarole or vent, where a scientist can
insert a tube into a hot opening.
Direct Sampling
Evacuated-bottle Method

The device includes a glass bottle with a sample port and a

high vacuum-stopcock. This technique involves collecting the gases at
the site where the gases are being emitted and then returning to the
laboratory for analysis.
 Direct Sampling
Flow-through bottle Method

A detailed analysis has

that advantage that it can
provide the information
necessary to reconstruct
the conditions of the
magma at depth, which is
the source region for the
emitted gases. The device includes a glass bottle but with a stopcock at
each end and a hand-operated pump attached to the sampling
tube. The purpose of the hand pump is to flush out the air while
entraining the gases into the bottle.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing technique offers a safer
alternative to traditional gas monitoring since
observations may be made at ranges of several km.
It also enables several species of interest to be
measured simultaneously (with results possible in
almost real-time) and is well-suited to studies of the
atmospheric chemistry of volcanic plumes.
Remote Sensing
Meteorological Balloons

Balloons are used to take samples in or to carry

instruments into aerosol layers. Controlled meteorological
(CMET) balloons is used to analyze the plumes, which have
altitude control and drift with winds.
 Remote Sensing
Meteorological Balloons
Michigan Technological University "Studying Volcanoes with
Balloons." 16 August 2008.
Durant, an adjunct geological sciences faculty
member at Michigan Technological University, and
colleagues took meteorological balloons to the Kilauea
volcano. "The balloons are piloted remotely by satellite
Trivia:
Did you know that you
link," Durant explained, "with flight visualization using
can drink Lava but only Google Earth. We were looking at tropospheric volcanic
once.
emissions of sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and water,
which can be hazardous to human and animal health and
degrade ecosystems."
Remote Sensing
LiDAR

LIDAR is a ground-based
remote sensing method that is
used to measure the distribution
and amounts of several gases in
the atmosphere. The technology
relies on lasers, set to a
wavelength absorbed by carbon
dioxide, that scan the volcanic
plume.
 Remote Sensing
LiDAR
Alessandro Aiuppa,
New Advances in Dial-Lidar-Based Remote Sensing of
along with fellow the Volcanic CO2 Flux
Reservoirs and Fluxes
Community members. Aiuppa A, Fiorani L, Santoro S, Parracino S, D’Aleo R, Liuzzo M, Maio
The researchers G, Nuvoli M (2017)
deployed their DIAL-
LiDAR (Differential
Absorption Light
Detection and
Ranging), three
kilometers from
The studies provide proof of concept that LiDAR
Stromboli volcano in
June 2014 and four can be used to monitor volcanic gases more safely than
kilometers from Mt.
Etna in July 2016 to existing instruments. The new technology also collects
record carbon dioxide
levels in the plumes. data more frequently, providing better resolution of gas
fluxes, and yields results quicker than previous
methods.
Remote Sensing
LiDAR
Remote Sensing
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)

TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) instrument is

attached on satellites. is used for high resolution mapping and
measurements of the ozone layer. The TOMS instrument
determines the amount of ozone present in the ozone layer by
reading backscattered UV light, which is the UV light the earth
emits back into space
Remote Sensing
Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)

The Advance Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)

is a radiation-detection imager that can be used for remotely
determining cloud cover and the surface temperature.
Remote Sensing
Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)

This scanning radiometer uses 6 detectors that

collect different bands of radiation wavelengths. This
includes red, thermal, mid and near-infrared bands. But
over time, their spectral ranges have varied.
 Remote Sensing
Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)

During the Pinatubo

eruption, AVHRR
showed that the layer
circled the Earth in 21
days and that it had
inhomogeneities that
persisted for more
than two months. The
layer covered 42% of
the Earth after only
two months.
 Remote Sensing
Correlation Spectrometer (COSPEC)

COSPEC used to
measure SO2
released by Merapi A correlation spectrometer (COSPEC) is designed to measure
Volcano.
the amount of sulfur dioxide in a passing air mass (or volcanic plume).
The spectrometer compares the amount of solar ultraviolet light
absorbed by sulfur dioxide in the plume to an internal standard.
 Remote Sensing
Correlation Spectrometer (COSPEC)

Use of vehicle-
mounted (left) and
tripod-mounted
(right) ground-based
COSPEC. A. Side
view. B. Front view.
C. Typical data. From
Sutton and others
(1992).
This COSPEC is used either from the ground where it is
mounted on a vehicle or tripod that scans the plume, or the
device can be attached to an aircraft that traverses underneath
the plume.
Remote Sensing
Correlation Spectrometer (COSPEC)
 Remote Sensing
Infrared Carbon Dioxide Analyzer (LI-COR)

From USGS- Map of

CO2 concentration-
constructed from
data near Horseshoe
Lake and Mammoth An infrared carbon dioxide analyzer or Li-COR has
Mountain, California become a standard method for measuring carbon dioxide (CO2)
emission rates. It is employed in a similar manner to the COSPEC
but requires data from the whole plume in order to calculate a
carbon dioxide emission rate.
Remote Sensing
Infrared Carbon Dioxide Analyzer (LI-COR)

The LI-COR can also be used to measure soil efflux

emissions. These soil emissions are typically in areas where
volcanic gases rise from depth and remain in the soil
directly beneath the surface.
 Remote Sensing
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR)

The significant
advantage of FTIR
methods over more
traditional techniques
for plume surveillance is
the ability to detect and
measure abundances of
several gases of interest
– including SO2, HCl, HF,
CO2, CO, SiF4, and OCS
– rapidly and remotely. The FTIR or Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer
can be used to measure several gases emitted from a
volcano simultaneously.
Continuous Sampling
MultiGAS

MultiGAS instruments is use for direct sampling and efficiently

monitor several gases at once. Using a combination of optical and
electrochemical sensors, these instrument packages can measure the
concentrations of CO2, SO2 and H2S as well as environmental
parameters like temperature and pressure.
Harmful Effects of Volcanic Gases
Gases from volcanoes give rise to
numerous impacts on climate, the
environment, and people.
The volcanic gases that pose the greatest
potential hazard to people, animals,
agriculture, and property are sulfur
dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
fluoride.
Harmful Effects of Volcanic Gases
Sulfur Dioxide gas can lead to acid rain and air
pollution downwind from a volcano.
SO2 causes air pollution Volcanic smog
Eruptions release large quantities of sulfur dioxide
gas into the atmosphere that can lead to volcanic air
pollution. Sulfur dioxide gas reacts chemically with sunlight,
oxygen, dust particles, and water to form volcanic smog
known as vog.
Harmful Effects of Volcanic Gases

SO2 effects Earth's surface temperature

Emissions of this gas may have the most significant
impact on the Earth’s climate. When sulfur ejected into the
stratosphere it gets converted to sulfuric acid aerosols. they
reflect the sun’s rays back into the space, preventing from
reaching the earth.
 Harmful Effects of Volcanic Gases

Carbon dioxide gas is heavier than air,

the gas may flow into in low-lying areas and
collect in the soil. The concentration of carbon
Volcanoes release
more than 130
dioxide gas in these areas can be lethal to
million tonnes of CO2
into the atmosphere
people, animals, and vegetation.
every year.
 Harmful Effects of Volcanic Gases

A few historic
eruptions have
Fluorine-compounds
released sufficient
fluorine-compounds
Fluorine is a pale yellow gas that attaches to fine ash
to deform or kill particles, coats grass, and pollutes streams and lakes.
animals that grazed on
vegetation coated with Exposure to this powerful caustic irritant can cause
volcanic ash; fluorine conjunctivitis, skin irritation, bone degeneration and
compounds tend to
become concentrated mottling of teeth.
on fine-grained ash
particles, which can be
ingested by animals.
Volcanic Ash Clouds

Volcanic ash consists of fragments of pulverized rock,

minerals and volcanic glass, created during volcanic
eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in
diameter.
Volcanic Ash Clouds
Volcanic Ash Creation

Volcanic ash is formed during explosive

volcanic eruptions when dissolved gases in
magma expand and escape violently into the
atmosphere. The force of the escaping gas
shatters the magma and propels it into the
atmosphere where it solidifies into fragments
of volcanic rock and glass.
Volcanic Ash Clouds
Volcanic Ash Properties

Mineral
The types of minerals present in volcanic ash are
dependent on the chemistry of the magma from which it
erupted. Considering that the most abundant elements found in
silicate magma are silicon and oxygen, the various types of
magma (and therefore ash) produced during volcanic eruptions
are most commonly explained in terms of their silica content.
Volcanic Ash Clouds
Volcanic Ash Properties
Volcanic Ash Clouds
Volcanic Ash Properties
Mineral in Volcanic Ash 1: Primary Minerals and Volcanic Glass
Mitsuhiro Nakagawa and Tsukasa Ohba
The primary purpose of using volcanic glass is to
correlate volcanic ash, and to identify the source volcano of the
volcanic ash. Another example shows that volcanic ash also
contains a record of magmatic processes during eruption.
The pioneering and most successful research of volcanic
glass is correlation of widespread tephra of giant eruptions
forming calderas in southern Kyushu.
Since 1980s, in addition to measurement of refractive
index, chemical compositions of volcanic glass determined by
EPMA (Electron probe micro-analyzer) have been adopted for
correlation of volcanic ash.
 Volcanic Ash Clouds
Volcanic Ash Properties
Chemical
It has long been recognised that a range of sulfate
Salts are formed because and halide (primarily chloride and fluoride) compounds are
of rapid acid dissolution of
ash particles within readily mobilised from fresh volcanic ash.
eruption plumes (e.g.
Sulfur dioxide gas is
converted in oxygen,
The surface of the volcanic ash contains a very, very
moisture and sunlight to fine-grained salt cover, about 1nm or less thick.
acid sulfate aerosol. This
can be rained out of the
plume and form acid rain).
Volcanic Ash Clouds
Once volcanic ash is airborne, three factors
determine how far it will travel before falling back to the
Earth:
1. Particle size
2. Wind speed and direction
3. Eruption type
Dangers of Volcanic Ash
• Disruption to air travel
• Roof collapse
• Poor visibility
• Acid coating on ash irritating lungs and eyes
• Contamination of water supplies
• Vegetation damage
• Increase chance of Lahar formation
Dangers of Volcanic Ash
Long-term health of children following the Eyjafjallajökull
volcanic eruption: a prospective cohort study
Heidrun Hlodversdottir, Harpa Thorsteinsdottir, Edda Bjork Thordardottir, Urdur
Njardvik, Gudrun Petursdottir, and Arna Hauksdottir
In 2010, exposed children were more likely than non-
exposed children to experience respiratory symptoms and
anxiety/worries. Both genders had an increased risk of
symptoms of anxiety/worries but only exposed boys were
at increased risk of experiencing headaches and sleep
disturbances compared to non-exposed boys. Within the
exposed group, children whose homes were damaged were
at increased risk of experiencing anxiety/worries and
depressed mood than children whose homes were not
damaged.
Dangers of Volcanic Ash
Quantification of ash sedimentation dynamics through
depolarisation imaging with AshCam
Ben Esse, Michael Burton, Matthew Varnam, Ryunosuke Kazahaya, Paul A. Wallace,
Felix Von-Aulock, Yan Lavallée, Giuseppe Salerno, Simona Scollo, Hugh Coe.
The University of Manchester, developed a new camera
to measure the flow and speed of ash falling out of a volcanic
plume.
The researchers measure how ash particles interact with
sunlight and, specifically, how they change the polarisation of
sunlight.
Professor Burton added: "Our research helps to measure
the dynamics of ash fallout during an eruption. This gives us new
insights into volcanic ash dynamics, providing an important step
towards improved models of ash dispersion.
 Devastating Volcanic Eruption

The eruption ejected

more than 1 cubic mile
(5 cubic kilometers) of
material into the air and
created a column of ash
that rose up 22 miles
(35 km). Ash fell across
the countryside, even
piling up so much that
some roofs collapsed
under the weight.

Mount Pinatubo – Luzon, Philippines – 1991

 Devastating Volcanic Eruption

The whole town of

Cagsawa was buried.
Just the tops of
buildings and coconut
trees protruded from
the debris. The formerly
beautiful cultivated
slopes of Mt Mayon
were now just covered
with sand and ash.

Mayon Volcano – Albay - 1814

 Devastating Volcanic Eruption

Laki – Iceland – 1783

The eruption freed trapped
volcanic gases that were carried
by the Gulf Stream over to
Europe. In the British Isles, many
died of gas poisoning. The
volcanic material sent into the
It killed a lot of people air also created fiery sunsets
so, hindi siya Laki hehe. recorded by 18th-century
Korni dapat di mo na
lang binasa!
painters.
 Devastating Volcanic Eruption

The eruption reached its

peak in April 1815, when
it exploded so loudly
that it was heard on
Sumatra Island, more
than 1,200 miles (1,930
km) away. The death toll
from the eruption was
estimated at 71,000
people, and clouds of
heavy ash descended on
may far-away islands.

Tambora – Indonesia - 1815