Module 3

Signal Encoding Techniques

Signal Encoding Techniques
 Modulation : Modulation is the process
encoding source data onto a carrier signal
with frequency fc.

 The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital

and is called the modulating signal or baseband
signal
 The result of modulating the carrier signal is
called the Modulated signal s(t).
Digital data, Digital Signal
 Digital Data, Digital Signal
 Encoding :
Encoding scheme is simply the mapping from
data bits to signal elements.
 Digital signal
 Digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous
voltage pulses.
 Each pulse is a signal element
 Binary data encoded into signal elements
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data element

4.7
 Data rate and Baud rate

 The baud or signal rate can be

expressed as:
S = c x N x 1/r bauds
where N is data rate
c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.)
r is the ratio between data element &
signal element
4.8
 Example 4.1

A signal is carrying data in which one data element is

encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is
100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1?

Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud
rate is then

4.9
 Some Terms
 Unipolar : If the signal elements all have
the same algebraic sign, that is, all
positive or negative, then the signal is
unipolar.
 Polar : In polar signalling, one logic
state is represented by a positive voltage
level, and the other by a negative voltage
level.
data rate : The data signalling rate, or just
data rate, of a signal is the rate, in bits
per second, that data are transmitted.
modulation rate: The modulation rate,
in contrast, is the rate at which the signal
level is changed.
 mark and space : refer to the binary digits
1 and 0,
 Interpreting Signals
 Receiver must know with accuracy when
the signal begins and ends.
 Factors affecting signal interpretation of
the receiver
 signal to noise ratio
 data rate
 bandwidth
 encoding scheme
 Comparison of Encoding
Schemes
 Signal spectrum:
 Clocking:
 the beginning and ending of each bit position.
 Synchronization and Asynchroziation

 Errordetection
 Signal interference and noise immunity
 Cost and complexity
 Non –Return-to-zero
In this scheme positive voltage defines bit 1
and the zero voltage defines bit 0.

It is called Non-return-to- Zero because the

signal does not return to zero at the middle of
the bit .
 Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
 two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
 more often, negative voltage for bit 1 and
positive for bit 0.
 Non-return to Zero Inverted
 Non-return to zero inverted on ones
 transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
 no transition denotes binary 0
 example of differential encoding since have
 data represented by changes rather than levels
Note

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines

the value of the bit.

In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of

inversion determines the value of the bit.
 Manchester Encoding
 has transition in middle of each bit period
 the signal changes not between the bits but during the bit.
 high to low represents zero
 low to high represents one
 Differential Manchester
Encoding
 always a transition occurs in the middle of the bit
interval.
 If it is bit 0 transition occurs at start of bit period
also and for bit 1 no transition at start of bit
period.
 NRZ Pros & Cons
 Pros
 easy to engineer
 make good use of bandwidth
 Cons
 dc component
 lack of synchronization capability
 used for magnetic recording
 not often used for signal transmission
 Bipolar schemes (or)
Multilevel binary encoding:
 In this scheme, there are three voltage levels:
positive , negative, and zero.

 Methods under this category

1. Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI) encoding
2. Pseudoternary endocing
Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI)
 three levels are used: positive, negative, and zero
 Bit 0 represented by no line signal (Zero
voltage).
 Bit 1 represented by positive or negative
pulse.
 Bit 1 pulses alternate in polarity.
 Pseudoternary encoding
A variation of AMI encoding is called
pseudoternary.
 bit 1 is encoded as a Zero voltage
 Bit 0 is encoded as alternating positive
and negative voltages.
 Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)

 B8ZS works in a similar way to AMI

 IN AMI, there is a problem with synchronisation being

lost when there is a stream of binary 0s being sent.

 B8ZS attempts to tackle this problem by making artificial

signal changes.

 B8ZS is a common method used in the US to avoid the

synchronisation problem of long strings of binary 0s
 Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)

 AMI encoding is amended with the

following rules:
1. If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage
pulse preceding this octet was positive, then the
eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000+-0-+.
2. If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage
pulse preceding this octet was negative, then the
eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000-+0+-.

'+' = Positive Voltage Pulse

'-' = Negative Voltage Pulse
'0' = No Voltage Pulse
 Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution
(B8ZS)
DATA | 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
B8ZS | 0 + 0 - + 0 0 0 + - 0 - + - 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 –

'+' = Positive Voltage Pulse

'-' = Negative Voltage Pulse
'0' = No Voltage Pulse
Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution
(B8ZS)

V=bipolar violation
B=valid bipolar signal
 High Density Bipolar-3 Zeros (HDB3)

 HDB3 is the European equivalent of

B8ZS.
 It works in a similar way to B8ZS but
replaces string of 4 zeroes rather than 8.
Example 1 of HDB3 encoding
The pattern of bits
"10000110"
encoded in HDB3 is
"+000V-+0“
Example 2 of HDB3 encoding
The pattern of bits
"1010000011000011000000"
encoded in HDB3 is
"+0-+00 +0-+ -0 0-+-+00+00"
B8ZS and HDB3
Encoding Schemes
Digital data , Analog signal
(Digital-to-analog conversion)
 Digital data , Analog signal
(Digital-to-analog conversion)

5.34
 Digital Data, Analog Signal
(Digital-to-Analog Conversion)
 Digital data needs to be carried on an analog
signal.
 A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the
function of transporting the digital data in an
analog waveform.
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal(carrier) based on the information in digital
data.
Digital data , Analog Signal

Encoding techniques
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)
4. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

5.36
 Digital data, Analog signal

 The analog carrier signal is manipulated

to uniquely identify the digital data being
carried.

5.37
 Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK)
 Also called binary ASK
 ASK is implemented by changing the
amplitude of a carrier signal to reflect
amplitude levels in the digital signal.

 For example: a digital “1” could not affect the

signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by making
it zero.

5.38
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK

5.40
 Bandwidth of ASK

 The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional

to the signal rate S.
B = (1+d)S

 “d” is due to modulation, lies between 0

and 1.

5.41
 Frequency Shift Keying

 Also called binary Frequency shift

keying (binary FSK)
 In FSK, the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied to represent data.

 The digital data stream changes the

frequency of the carrier signal, fc.
5.42
 Bit 1 could be represented by f1=fc +f.
 Bit 0 could be represented by f2=fc-f.
Frequency Shift Keying
 Multiple FSK
 each signalling element represents more
than one bit
 more than two frequencies used
 more bandwidth efficient
 more prone to error
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 In phase shift keying (PSK), the phase of a

carrier is changed according to the digital
signal.

 phase of carrier signal is shifted to

represent data.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 The simplest method uses two phases
0 degrees and 180 degrees.

 If the logic state changes (i.e. from logic high to

logic low) the phase of the carrier is shifted by
180 degrees.
 If the logic state does not change, the phase of
the carrier remains the same. ( 0 degrees
change)
 Also called Binary PSK.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Quadrature PSK
 get
more efficient use if each signal
element represents more than one bit
 eg. shifts of /2 (90o)
 each element represents two bits
 split input data stream in two & modulate onto
carrier & phase shifted carrier
 can
use 8 phase angles & more than one
amplitude
 9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of
which have two amplitudes
Modulation Techniques
QPSK and OQPSK
Modulators
 Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes
 bandwidth
 ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate
 multilevel PSK gives significant improvements
 in presence of noise:
 bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB
superior to ASK and FSK
 for MFSK & MPSK have tradeoff between
bandwidth efficiency and error performance
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
 QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and some wireless
 combination of ASK and PSK
 logical extension of QPSK
 send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
 use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
 each carrier is ASK modulated
 two independent signals over same medium
 demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Modulator
 QAM Variants
 two level ASK
 each of two streams in one of two states
 four state system
 essentially QPSK
 four level ASK
 combined stream in one of 16 states
 have 64 and 256 state systems
 improved data rate for given bandwidth
 but increased potential error rate
 Analog Data, Digital Signal
 digitization is conversion of analog data
into digital data which can then:
 be transmitted using NRZ-L
 be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
 be converted to analog signal
 analog to digital conversion done using a
codec
 pulse code modulation
 delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 sampling theorem:
 “If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all information
in original signal”
 eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample
per sec
 strictly have analog samples
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 so assign each a digital value
PCM Example
PCM Block Diagram
Non-Linear Coding
Companding
 Delta Modulation
 analog input is approximated by a
staircase function
 can move up or down one level () at each
sample interval
 has binary behavior
 since function only moves up or down at each
sample interval
 hence can encode each sample as single bit
 1 for up or 0 for down
Delta Modulation Example
Delta Modulation Operation
PCM verses Delta Modulation
 DM has simplicity compared to PCM
 but has worse SNR
 issue of bandwidth used
 eg. for good voice reproduction with PCM
• want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
• need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
 data compression can improve on this
 still growing demand for digital signals
 use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
 PCM preferred to DM for analog signals
 Analog Data, Analog Signals
 modulate carrier frequency with analog data
 why modulate analog signals?
 higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
 permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8)
 types of modulation
 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
 Analog
Modulation
Techniques
 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation
 Summary
 looked at signal encoding techniques
 digital data, digital signal
 analog data, digital signal
 digital data, analog signal
 analog data, analog signal
 References
 Chapter4, Data Communications and
Networking – B.A. Forouzan

 Chapter
5, Data and Computer
communications – William Stallings