Structural Geology

Ch. 5 – Rheology

Rheology - the functional relationship between stress

and strain.
Just as the result of a force on a rigid mass is motion,
so the result of a stress on a deformable mass is strain.
Rigid body mechanics is relatively easy and can be
described by Force = mass x acceleration.
Rheology is not so simple, and there is no general
equation that describes deformation other than s = f(e)
 Compression, tension and shear forces stress
the rocks, causing them to strain i.e. “give”

Units of Stress = Force / Area

Convergent Divergent Transform

 Relation
ship
Between
Stress
and
Strain
Rubber Band

Strain can be a change in shape (a deformation) due to an applied stress

Relationship
Between
Stress and
Strain at low
Temps and
Pressure or
Sudden Stress

Ruler, Pencil
Relationship
Between
Stress and
Strain under
high Temps
or Pressure

Chewing Gum
 Structural Geology (3443)
Ch. 5 – Rheology

Determination of the functional relationship s = f(e) must

be done experimentally and that sub-discipline is called
Rock Mechanics.
Rock mechanics is most important in engineering geology,
where the stability of slopes, tunnels, mine adits, shafts
drifts, and soils and foundations determines the economic
viability of a project and the health of the users.
In Structural Geology and Tectonics, experimental rock
deformation is important in determining the evolution of
natural structures and tectonic features.
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Rheology
Design of triaxial compression
testing equipment is shown at left.
tress is increased vertically by
hydraulic jack.
Confining stress on sides is
produced independently by fluid
pressure.
Pore pressure (fluid pressure in
pore space) is produced the by
using the natural fluids (water,
petroleum).
Temperature is also controlled.
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Rheology
Vertical stress on the specimen is
calculated knowing the force on
the piston and the area of the
specimen top. Here vertical stress
is usually the maximum stress
( s 1)
Stress on the side of the
specimen is the same as the
confining fluid pressure. Since the
two side stresses cannot be
controlled independently, s2 = s3.
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Rheology
In order to graph the results on a
2-D stress-strain graph.
“differential” stress is plotted
against strain.
ds = s1 – s3
This is equivalent to the diameter
of the Mohr graph. The greater the
differential stress, the bigger the
Mohr circle, and the greater the
amount of possible shear stress.
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Rheology
Pore pressure, due to water or
petroleum in the pore spaces,
greatly effects deformation
because it subtracts from the
loads on the rock. Deformation is
produced by “effective stress”
se1 = s1 - sp
se2 = s2 - sp
se3 = s3 - sp
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Rheology
Strain is measured by the
displacement of the piston (Dl).
Knowing the original length of the
specimen (lo), finite (accumulated)
strain is calculated.
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Rheology
Finally, rate of strain must be
controlled because it has a
profound affect on the way rocks
deform. So the displacement of
the piston (Dl), must be timed (Dt).

de D / Dt
 e
 
dt o
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing

“Creep” tests show how strain

accumulates over time under
a constant load (stress).
Typically, the rock deforms
rapidly and then begins to
deform more slowly after the
yield stress. This is called
primary creep (area I, top
figure).
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Results of Rock
testing
After primary creep (I),
deformation continues at
a constant rate (the linear
portion of the curve)
which is secondary creep
(II).
Finally, deformation rate
increases rapidly until the
rock fails (fractures) in
Tertiary creep (III).
If stress is removed (b),
strain drops rapidly, but a
permanent strain remains.
Differential stress s1-s3 to strain graph
for limestone at a confining pressure of
103 MPa (that’s about 4.2 km below
Ch. 5 – Results of
the surface ). Specimen was at room Rock testing
temperature

On a stress-strain plot, the

creep curve looks
different.
Up to point A, the graph is
linear, and if the load is
removed, the strain is
recovered and goes back
to zero. This type of
deformation is called
“Elastic”.
Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing

The elastic limit at point A is

called the yield strength, and
at greater stress the curve is
no longer linear. At point B,
the load was removed, but the
strain does not return to 0
because the elastic limit was
exceeded. The specimen has
about ½% permanent, or
ductile, strain, about the same
amount as from point A to B.
Primary creep would include
the curve up to point B or C.
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing

The same specimen was

reloaded assuming 0 strain at
the start. The specimen again
deforms elastically until about
point C, which is the new
yield strength. The difference
between A and C is called
strain hardening – previous
ductile strain adds more
resiliency to the rock.
Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing

Continued loading produces

more ductile strain from C to
point D which is called the
peak (or ultimate) strength.
That is the highest load the
rock can bear.
This portion of the curve
(from C-D) would be
secondary creep.
Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing

After the ultimate strength is

reached (D), it takes smaller
and smaller loads to produce
strain (or the strain rate
increases if the load is kept
constant) until the specimen
ruptures (fractures).
This is equivalent to Tertiary
Creep.
Fracturing is called brittle
behavior in contrast to
ductile.
 Structural Geology
Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing

Changing the confining stress – the effect of burial depth.

Increasing the confining pressure and the mean stress, is
like seeing how the specimen would behave at deeper
depths.
For crustal rocks conversion of depth to Pascals (Pa) is
Pa ~ depth (in Meters) * 25000
or
depth = Pa/ 25000
This graph shows the Structural Geology
effect of increasing depth Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing
without increasing •Remember differential stress is s1-s3
temperature s1 is the maximum normal stress, and s3 the
minimum

s1 – s3
Homework: What is the
range of depths shown by Structural Geology
the graph? Remember 1 Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing
MPa = 1 x 106 Pa

Confining
Pressure
MPa

s1 – s3

1 km = 25 MPa
Example for 20 MPa
What about 140 MPa
What happens to the yield
strength with increasing Structural Geology
confining pressure? Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing
s1 – s3

•Increasing confining pressure

increases the ability of the rock to
flow, not break.
•Analogy, clap hands under water
•Larger strains can be achieved at
greater depths before failure
What happens to the Structural Geology
ultimate strength with Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing
increasing confining •Ultimate Strength: max stress
pressure? material can support before failure
s1 – s3
What happens to the
rupture strength * with
Structural Geology
increasing confining Ch. 5 – Results of Rock testing
pressure?
s1 – s3
* *

**
*
*
This test is similar to the last one,
but for sandstone. The confining Structural Geology
pressure was 200 MPa. What is the
simulated depth? Conversion factor
Ch. 5 – Rock testing
1km ~25 MPa
s1 – s 3
 Structural Geology: Ch. 5 – Rock testing
However, these 5 tests were run at different pore pressures sf
under the same 200 MPa confining pressure sc. The effective
confining pressure P*c, = sc – sf. What is the pore pressure sf
in each of the 5 tests?
Sandstones and shales contain a significant fluid component
s1 – s3

Top sp = 0, bottom sp = 200 MPa

 Structural Geology: Ch. 5 – Rock testing
What happens to the ultimate (peak) strength (dots) as
effective confining pressure increases? As the pore pressure
increases?

s1 – s3
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
Effect of temperature:
If the temperature
gradient is 25oC/km, what
is the simulated depth of

s1 – s3
the various temperatures
if the surface
temperature is 25oC?

de D / Dt
Example  e
 
(300oC – 25oC) x 1km/25oC dt o
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
What happens to the
ultimate (blue bar ) and
yield strength (dot o) as
temperature (depth)

s1 – s3
increases?
Strain Rate Fast 4 x 10-1/sec = 0.4 Dl/l0/sec

Tension (extension)

Effect of strain rate de/dt

Homework:
Look at the differential
stress rupture points.
For the same rock (here s1 – s3
Yule Marble) is the rupture
point stress higher under
slow or fast strain rate?

See also Table 5.7 for e’

de D / Dt
 e
  Slow 3.3 x 10-8 /sec
dt o
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing

High e’
Effect of strain rate.
What happens to the yield
strength as the strain rate e’
decreases?

de D / Dt
 e
 
dt o

Low e’
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
Example: Divergent Margin
Consider a cross section
which was extended to 51
km from an initial length of
33 km.
If the deformation took 1
million years,
a.Calculate the strain rate. de D / Dt
 e
 
dt o
b. How does that compare to
the experimental strain rates
shown here?
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
Example:
de D / Dt
 e
 
Consider a cross section dt o

which was extended to 51

km from an initial length of e’ = 51 – 33 km
33 km. 33 km x 106 years

e’ = 51 – 33 km
If the deformation took 1
33 km x 3.1536 x 1013 seconds
million years,
a.calculate the strain rate. e’ = 1.73 x 10-14/seconds

b. How does that compare to A much slower strain rate than the
the experimental strain rates experiments seen above.
shown here?
106 years x 365 days/ 1 year x 24 hours/1 day x 60 min/1 hour x 60 sec/1 min

1 million years ~ 3.1536 x 1013 seconds.

 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing

Effect of rock type

Rocks are so variable that it is hard to generalize, but
siliceous rock with little pore space are generally strongest.
Competence “is a relative term that compares the resistance
of rocks to flow, their viscosity.
Weakest rock salt < shale < limestone < graywacke < sandstone (arenite) < dolomite Strongest
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
The linear portion of the stress-strain curve is called the
elastic region where s = Ee.
E is Young’s Modulus, a “constant”, that changes with type of material.
Once the material has exceeded it’s yield strength, the elastic equation
doesn’t apply.
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
Young’s Modulus is the slope of the stress-strain elastic line,
and is a measure of stiffness, not strength. A material with a
high Young’s modulus is said to be stiffer than a rock with a
lower one, not stronger.
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
There is a similar elastic relationship between shear stress
and shear strain: t = Gg. where G is the shear modulus that
depends on rock type.
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing

If you squeeze a specimen in one

direction, it will produce a
perpendicular strain just to maintain
volume. The ratio of these two
perpendicular strains is called
Poisson’s ratio

n = eh/ev
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing

Finally, The bulk modulus K is a measure of the amount of

dilation (change in volume) produced by the mean stress
(pressure)

s = K x [(V – V0)/V0]
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing

The second general model to describe stress-strain is Plastic

behavior. This describes the ductile portion of the graph
where strain accumulates continuously when stress reaches
a critical value. Most rocks behave as elastic-plastic
materials, as does this
Crown Point Limestone:
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing

The material is perfectly plastic if the ductile portion is nearly

horizontal. If the curve rises (more stress is needed the
maintain deformation) it is called strain hardening. If the
curve declines (less stress required) it is strain softening.
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
The last general
relationship is the
Newtonian Viscous one
which describes a few
ductile rocks and most
fluids. Here, the
relationship is not
between stress and
strain, but stress and
strain rate. Think of a
fluid – if stress is applied,
the fluid flows (deforms)
continuously at a certain
rate and continues to
deform at that rate until
the stress is changed.
 Structural Geology Ch. 5 – Rock testing
The viscosity is the
ratio of maximum shear
stress to shear strain
rate, which is the slope
of the line on the graph