MEE1027 – Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Lecture 02
Introduction

Dr. R. Jegadeeshwaran,
Associate Professor, SMBS,
VIT - Chennai Campus.

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MEE1027 – Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Characteristics of measurement systems

• To choose the instrument, most suited to a
particular measurement application, we have to
know the system characteristics.
• The performance characteristics may be broadly
divided into two groups, namely ‘static’ and
‘dynamic’ characteristics.
Static characteristics
• the performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite
slowly.
Dynamic characteristics
• the relationship between the system input and
output when the measured quantity (measurand) is
varying rapidly.
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Generalized Instrument System

Thermal
Variable

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Generalized Instrument System

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Static Performance of Instrument

SYSTEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Range
• Span
• Linearity
• Sensitivity
• Environmental effects
• Hysteresis
• Resolution
• Death space

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Range
• The input range defines the minimum and maximum
value of the variable to measure.
• The output rage defines the minimum and maximum
value of the signal given by the transducer.
• Assume a temperature transducer which temperature
range is from 100°C to 250°C and the output range is
given from 4 to 10 mV.

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Span
• The input span is the maximum change of the input
and the output span is the maximum change of the
output.
• Input span:
I MAX  I MIN

• Output span:
OMAX  OMIN

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Error
• If the transducer is ideally designed and made from
appropriate materials with ideal workmanship, then
output will indicate the true value.
• But in actual practice the output of the transducer will
deviate from the true value.
• The algebraic difference between the indicated value
and the true value of the measured parameter is termed
as the error of the device.
• Error = Indicated value — true value
• For example, if the transducer gives a temperature
reading of 30°C when the actual temperature is 29°C,
then the error is + 1°C. If the actual temperature is 31°
C, then the error is - 1°C.

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Accuracy
• Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by
the measurement system would be wrong.
• Accuracy is the summation of all possible errors that
are likely to occur.
• For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of ± 1°C.
This means that reading given by the thermocouple can
be expected to lie within + 1°C (or) -1°C of the true
value.
• Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full
range output (or) full-scale deflection.
• For example, a thermocouple can be specified as having
an accuracy of ±4 % of full range output. Hence if the
range of the thermocouple is 0 to 200°C, then the
reading given can be expected to be within + 8°C (or) —
8°C of the true reading.
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Repeatability/Reproducibility
• The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its
ability to give the same output for repeated applications of
the same input value
• Repeatability is also defined as the measure of the
deviation of test results mean value

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Error types and sources

Random
Systematic errors (bias) – error
(precision)
measured values have Systematic error
(bias)
similar deviation from
correct value
Random errors (noise)–
measured values deviate
randomly around mean
value. Noise describes
the precison of
measurements

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Precision and Accuracy

• Measurement is described by its discrimination, its
precision, and its accuracy
• These are too often used interchangeably, but they
cover different concepts:
• Discrimination - the smallest increment that can
be discerned
• Precision - the spread of values obtained during
the measurements. Two terms that should be
used here are:
• repeatability - variation for a set of
measurements made in a very short period
• reproducibility – same concept, but for
measurements made over a long period
• Accuracy - is the closeness of a measurement to
the value defined to be the true value

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Precision and Accuracy

thickness of the hole
decides the
discrimination
Better precision i.e.
better repeatability

Better
accuracy i.e.
Mean value
closer to
bullseye

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Estimating the measurement accuracy

• Error is defined as the difference between the
measured value and the true value of the measurand
• Error (E) =(measured) - (true Value)
• Error can almost not be ever known, becuse we don’t
know the (true) value, error can only be estimated

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Linearity
• It is normally desirable that
the output reading of an Omax
instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity
being measured.
• An instrument is considered
if the relationship between
output an input can be
Omin
fitted in a line.
Imin Imax
 OMAX  OMIN 
O  OMIN    I  I MIN 
 I MAX  I MIN 

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Non-linearity
• Non-linearity is defined as the maximum deviation
of the output over the straight line

Non-Linearity can be quoted by: N I   OI   K  I  a

N max I 
Maximum % of Non-Linearity  100
OMAX  OMIN
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Hysteresis error
• When a device is used to
measure any parameter plot the
graph of output Vs value of
measured quantity.
• The two output readings obtained
usually differ from each other.
• This is because of a certain
amount of internal (or) external
friction in the response of the
sensing element.
• The maximum difference in
between any part of output
readings so obtained is known as
hysteresis error.

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Reliability
• The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility
that it will perform its assigned functions for a specific
period of time under given conditions.
• The reliability of a device (or) system is affected not only
by the choice of individual parts in system but also by
manufacturing methods, quality of maintenance and
the type of user.

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Stability
• The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the
same output when used to measure a constant input
over a period of time.
• The term drift is the change in output that occurs
over time.
• The drift can be expressed as a percentage of the full
range.
• Zero drift means if there is change in output when
there is zero input.

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Dead band / time

• There will be no output for certain range of input
values. This is known as dead band. There will be
no output until the input has reached a particular
value.
• The length of time from the application of an
input until the output begins to respond and
change is known as Dead time.

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Resolution
• Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the
measured value that can be detected
• The resolution is the smallest change in the input
value which will produce an observable change in the
input
• Resolution is also known as the degree of fineness
with which measurements can be made
• For example, if a micrometer with a minimum
graduation of 1mm is. used to measure to the nearest
0.5 mm, then by interpolation, the resolution is
estimated as 0.5 mm

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Backlash
• Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or)
angle through which any part of a mechanical
system can be moved in one direction without
causing any motion of the attached part.
• Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is
important in the precision design of gear trains.

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Sensitivity
• The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of
the change in instrument output that occurs
when the quantity being measured changes by a
given amount.
• Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:
Scale deflection
Sensitivity 
value of measurand producing deflection

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Calibration
• Calibration is the relationship
between the physical measurement
variable (input) and the signal dynamic range Saturation region
variable (output) for a specific
sensor
• Calibration curve – graph that
characterizes sensor or instrument
response to a physical input
• Sensitivity of the device is
determined by the slope of the
calibration curve.
• Dynamic range - the difference
between the smallest and largest
physical inputs that can reliably be
measured by an instrument Calibration curve example

• Saturation - increasing the

physical input value to the level
where there is no change in output
signal
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Instrument Drift
• This is caused by variations taking place in the
parts of the instrumentation over time
• Prime sources occur as chemical structural
changes and changing mechanical stresses
• Drift is a complex phenomenon for which the
observed effects are that the sensitivity and offset
values vary
• It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument
differently at the various amplitudes of the signal
present

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Classification of Drift

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Environmental effects
• All calibrations and specifications of an instrument
are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure etc.
• These standard ambient conditions are usually
defined in the instrument specification.
• As variations occur in the ambient temperature, etc.,
certain static instrument characteristics change, and
the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the
magnitude of this change.
• Such environmental changes affect instruments in
two main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity
drift.
• Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term,
bias.
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Dynamic Characteristics
• The Dynamic characteristics refers to the
behaviour between the time that input value
changes and the time that the value given by the
transducer settles down to the steady state value.
• Response time
• Time constant
• Rise time
• Settling Time

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Response to a step change in input

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Response time and Time constant

Response time:
• This is the time which elapses after a constant input,
step input, is applied to the transducer upto the point at
which the transducer gives an output corresponding to
some specified percentage (say 95%) of the value final
output.

Time Constant:
• This is the 63.2% response time.
• The time Constant is the measure of the inertia of the
sensor and so how fast it will react to the changes in
input.

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Rise time and Settling time

Rise time:
• This is the time taken for the output to rise to
some specified percentage of the steady-state
output.
• Often Rise time refers to the time taken for the
output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value
to 90 or 95% of the steady-state value.

Settling time:
• This is the time taken for the output to settle to
within some percentage(eg. 2% of the steady-state
value).

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Thermometer in liquid

• The Figure shows

how an instrument
reading changed with
time when thermometer
is placed into a liquid at
time t=0s.
• The steady state value
is 55`C
• 95% of 55 is 52.25`C
• The 95 % Response
time is 228 s

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Summary
• Sensor Characteristics

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