• Hoisting equipment are usually powered equipment used for

lifting and lowering unit and varying loads intermittently.

• In certain equipment while lifting and lowering, shifting of the

load can also be accomplished, within an area known as the
reach of the equipment.
The components, parts and units of hoisting equipment include:
o Flexible hoisting appliances;
o Pulleys and pulley systems;
o Sprockets and drums;
o Load handling attachments;
o Stopping and braking devices;
o Drivers (motors), Transmission components (axles, shafts, bearings,
clutches, etc.);
o Rails and travelling wheels;
o Machine structures (crane frames) and Control devices.
• There are three groups of hoisting equipment having the following main
distinctive features.
i. Hoisting machines: designed as self-lifting gear and for hoisting and
moving.
ii. Cranes: a combination of separate hoisting mechanism with a frame for
lifting and/or moving loads.
iii. Elevators: a group of periodic action machine intended for raising
loads with guide- ways.
• The main technical parameters are:
o Lifting capacity: the maximum safe load the machine is designed to
handle;
o Dead weight of the machine: the total weight of the machine with out
the load;
o Speed of various movements: hoisting speed, the bridge travel speed
and the trolley travel speed;
o Lifting height: the height to which the load is intended to be raised;
o Geometrical dimension of the machine.
• Hoisting machines are periodic-action machines and their hourly capacity
can be determined from:

Qhr  n  Q
Where n = number of machine cycles per hour
Q = weight of live load [tons]
Qhr = hourly capacity [tons/h]
• When handling bulk material, the weight of live loads is:

Q = V   
• Where V = capacity of bucket, grab etc [m3]
 = filling factor
 = specific weight [t/m3]
• The total load lifting capacity of the machine will be:

Qtot  Q  G
• Where: Q = live load [tons]
G = weight of bucket, grab, etc. [tons]
• The number of cycle per hour is:

3600
n
t
• Where:
 t   t op  t idle
• Factors acting on the operating conditions are:
1. Load on the machine
2. Its annual and daily utilization
3. Relative duty factory (DF)
4. Ambient temperature
• Mean lifting capacity utilization:
Qm
K load 
Qn

Where: Qm = mean value of load [tons]

Qn = nominal load [tons]
• Yearly utilization factor:

Days in operations per year

K year 
365

• Daily utilization factor:

Hours in operations per day

K day 
24
• Hourly utilization factor:

Time - on in an operational hour(min )

K hr 
60

• Mean utilization of the machine per working cycle:

t op
DF  100%
t op  tidle

• The total time-on, T, of a mechanism throughout its life, h (in years)

DF
T  365K year
 24K day
K 
hr
h
100
• Duties of Hoisting Machinery
Duty Mean Utilization of Mechanism
By Time Duty Factor Temperature
K load (DF) 0
C
K year K day %
Light L 0.5 0.25 0.33 15 25
Medium M 0.5 0.5 0.67 25 25
Heavy H 0.75 0.75 0.67 40 25
Very Heavy VH 1.0 1.0 1.0 40 45
• Hoisting machineries use different flexible hoisting appliances for handling
materials some of which are:

o Hemp ropes
o Welded load chains
o Roller chains
o Steel wire ropes
• Hemp ropes have poor mechanical properties (rapid abrasion,
inadequate strength, rapid damage from sharp materials and
atmospheric effects).

• They can be recommended only for hand-operated hoisting

machinery (rope pulleys with diameters at least 10d).
 Cross-sections of Hemp Ropes
• Load on the rope [kgf]

F =
d
2
 br
4
For white rope  br  100 kg/cm2 and
For tarred rope  br  90 kg/cm2.
• They are widely used in hoisting installations as pliable members.

Where t - pitch
d - diameter
B - chain outside width
“A chain is no stronger than its weakest link”
• Depending on the ratio between the pitch and the diameter
i. Short-link chains with t  3 d
ii. Long-link chains with t > 3 d
• Depending on manufacturing accuracy
i. Calibrated - t  0.03dand B  0.05d
ii. Un-calibrated - t  0.1d and B  0.1d
• Welded chains are formed from oval steel links by a number of methods.

i. Hammer (forge) welding: the chain bar is formed by forging to chain

shape, then the ends are forge welded.

ii. Electric resistance welding: the link is made of two butt-welded half
links.

Sequence in the Manufacturing of Welded Chains

Disadvantages
- Heavy weight
- vulnerability to jerks and overload
- Sudden failure
- Intensive wear at the link joints and
- Low safe speed of movement
Advantages
– Good flexibility in all directions
– Use small diameter pulleys & drums
– Simple design and manufacture
Selection
Fbr
Fs 
K

Where , Fbr = breaking load [kg]

K = factor of safety (3 to 8)
Fs = Safe load [kg]
 Chains Drive Factor of Ratio Minimum
Safety, K (D/d) Number
of Teeth on
Sprocket
Welded calibrated and Hand 3 20 5
uncalibrated Power 6 30 5
Welded calibrated on sprocket Hand 4.5 20 -
sheaves Power 8 30 -
Welded uncalibrated (sling) - 6 - -
passing around the load

Welded uncalibrated (sling) not - 5 - -

passing around the load

Roller - 5 - 8
• They are composed of plates hinge-jointed by pins and rollers. For light
loads, two plates are used; for very heavy loads, the number of plates can be
increased up to 12.

Simple Roller Chain with Two Plates

• The plates can be secured on the pins by several methods like
retainer rings, pins, etc
• Roller chains are used for hand-operated hoists and power-driven winches and
hoisting mechanisms of high load lifting capacity.
• They are superior to welded chains
 The reliability of operation is higher since the plates are solid.
 Roller chains have good flexibility and therefore they can be used on small
diameter sprockets.
 The friction in the joints is considerably less.
• However, they should not be allowed:
 To carry weight at an angle
 To be used in dusty premises
 To wind on a drum
 To a speed greater than 0.25m/s
• They are extensively used in hoisting machinery as flexible lifting
appliances.

• Comparing to chains they have the following advantages.

 Lighter weight
 Less exposure to damage from jerks
 Silent operation even at high speeds
 Greater reliability in operation

(a) (b) (c)

Steel Wire Rope Construction

• Wire ropes are manufactured first by twisting

separate wires, cold drawn and given heat
treatment between drawing stages, into strands and
then into a "round" rope.

• Wire ropes consist of 6 or 8 strands and a core.

Each strand consists of 19 or 37 wires.
The lays of the rope classifies the wire ropes into:

i. Cross-of regular lay ropes: the direction of the twist of the wires in the
strand is opposite to that of the strands in the rope.

ii. Parallel or long lay ropes: the direction of twist of wire and strand is the
same. They are more flexible and resist wear better, but tend to spring and
are used in lift.

iii. Composite or reverse laid ropes: the wires in two adjacent strands are
twisted in the opposite direction.
Steel Wire Rope Lays
1. General Purpose Steel Wire Ropes
a. Ordinary construction: the strands are twisted of wires of the same
diameter. The repeatedly cross over of the inner wires create zones of
increased unit pressure, which shortens life.

b. Warrington type compound rope: is twisted of strands with different wire

diameters keeping the proportional pitch of every layer, thus crossovers are
eliminated.
2. Wire Ropes with Flattened Strands

They are usually made from five flattened strands with a flattened wire core; the
strands are laid on the hemp core.

They experience more uniform pressure and are used where the rope is
subjected to intensive abrasion and wear.

Ropes with Flattened Strands

3.Locked-coil Steel Wire Ropes

A locked coil rope consists of an outer layer formed of specially shaped wire
and an inner single lay spiral rope.

Locked-coil wire ropes are used in cable-ways and cable cranes; they are never
met within hoisting machines.

Locked-coil Ropes
• They have the advantage over the other wire ropes because they
have specific features of smooth surface, tightly packed wires
and little wear.

• However, their shortcoming is due to their little flexibility.

Selecting Steel Wire Ropes

• Wires in a loaded rope experience complex stress consisting of tension, bending,

twisting and compression.

• Thus the total stress can be determined analytically only to a certain degree of
approximation.

• Experiments have shown that life of a rope is greatly affected by fatigue and can
withstand only a definite number of bends during service life
• Investigations have shown that the rope life is inversely proportional to the
number of bends where one bend equals the transition of the rope from a
straight position into a bent position or vise versa.

• Reverse bending reduces the rope life approximately double of the single
bend.

• The number of bends is obtained by the number of points where the rope runs
on and off over a pulley/ drum surface.
• Depending on the number of bends, the corresponding rope life
can be found from the ratios
Dmin / d and Dmin / 

Dmin= minimum diameter of pulley/drum

d = diameter of rope
 = diameter of one wire
No. of bends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Dmin /d 16 20 23 25 26.5 28 30 31

No. of bends 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Dmin /d 32 33 34 35 36 37 37.5 38

Values of Dmin /d as a Function of Number of Bends

Total stress
S Mc
    ten   ben  
A I

M 2E

I Dmin

 Mc 2E  E
c   ben    
2 I Dmin 2 Dmin

 br S E '
 
  +
K A Dmin
 3
E'  E= Corrected rope elastic modulus  800,000kg/cm2
8
E = elastic modulus of rope wire material = 2,100,000kg/cm2

d 2  2
4

4
i  2.25 d  1.5 i

Thus:  d 
E'  
S E'   br
  
S 1.5 i  S E'
 
    
A Dmin A Dmin A Dmin K
1.5 i 
d
• Rewriting the equation for the required useful area:
S
A
 br d E'
 
K Dmin 1.5 i

• Ropes subjected to only tensile forces

where
Fbr Fbr =
Fs  breaking strength [kg]
K
Fs = maximum force [kg]
K = factor of safety
Values of K for Different Operating Conditions

Drive Duty K
Hand Light (L) 4.5
Light (L) 5.0

Medium (M) 5.5

Power
Heavy (H) 6.0
Very Heavy (VH) 6.0
 Given data:
S = 1800kgf
i = 222
 b 160kg / mm 2

K=6
Dmin/d = 23
S Nearest value of the area A is 174.4mm2
A( 222)   172.5mm 2
d= 22mm
 b
K D 
d
 36000


 = 1mm
 min  Breaking load(F)= 27900kgf
Wire ropes for Materials Handling Equipment (According to DIN 655)
Design (DIN655) Rope dia. Wire dia. Metal cross- Weight (kgf/m) Strength of the wire rope in (kgf) if the strength of
d 5% (mm)  (mm) section 5% the wire in (kgf/mm2)
(mm2)
130 kgf/mm2 160 kgf/mm2 180 kgf/mm2
6x19=114 wires 6.5 0.4 14.3 0.15 1860 2300 2550
+1core
8.0 0.5 22.4 0.21 2900 3600 4050
A
9.5 0.6 32.2 0.30 4200 5150 5800
12.5 0.8 57.3 0.54 7450 9150 10300
16.0 1.0 89.5 0.85 11650 14300 16100
19.0 1.2 128.9 1.22 16750 20600 23200
22.0 1.4 175.5 1.66 22800 28050 31600
6x37=222 wires 10 0.45 35.3 0.34 4600 5650 6350
+1core
13 0.60 62.8 0.59 8150 10050 11300
B
16 0.75 98.1 0.93 12750 15700 17650
22 1.00 174.4 1.65 22650 27900 31400
24 1.20 251.1 2.38 32650 40200 45200
30 1.50 392.3 3.72 51000 62750 70600
40 1.80 564.9 5.36 73450 90400 101700
8x37=296 wires 16 0.6 83.7 0.84 10900 13400 15050
+1core
19 0.7 113.9 1.14 14800 18200 20500
C
21 0.8 148.8 1.49 19350 23800 26800
27 1.0 232.5 2.32 30250 37200 41850
32 1.2 334.8 3.35 43500 53550 60250
40 1.5 523.1 5.24 68000 83700 94150
• Various methods are used to secure the ends of chains and ropes to the load
suspension appliance.

a) Fastenings of Welded Load Chains

Split yoke and a bolt Cross piece and forked eyes

b) Fastenings of Roller Chains

A special link having bigger pitch and hole

for bolted connection
c) Fastenings of Wire Ropes
Geometry of a Tapered Wire Rope Socket
 Q
F 
2sin 
pA where p = unit pressure
F   115kg/cm2
2
A = bearing area [cm2]
l (d1  d 2 )
A
2
Hence We have
pl (d1  d 2 )
F 
4 Q p( d 1  d 2 )( d 1  d 2 )
F  
l 
r1  r2 d  d2
 1
2 sin  4  2sin 
sin  2sin 
 4Q
p( d 12  d 22 ) p
Q (d 12  d 22 )
4
Assuming d 2 = d (wire rope diameter)

4Q
d1  d2
p

Where  sh =125kg/cm2
Q
h
d   sh
• The tension in the slings are functions of included angle between the
sling legs.
• If the load is suspended from two legs of sling, the tension in each leg
will be .
Q
S 
2 cos 
For a four leg sling loaded symmetrically
Q
S1  S 2  S 3  S 4 
4 cos 
h
We know that cos  
l

Thus
Ql
S1  S 2  S 3  S 4 
4h
1 Q Q
For m legs S   K
cos  m m

Where, K 
1
cos 
Various Types of Knots of Hemp Ropes
• Pulleys are either fixed or movable in design.
• Fixed pulleys: are used to change the direction of the flexible
appliance while
• movable pulleys: are used to gain mechanical advantage or
speed.

Single Fixed Pulley

• Theoretically, Z 0  Q but due to the pulley resistance, being
partly due to the stiffness of wire rope and partly due to
frictional resistance in the bearings Z 0> Q,.
 a. Due to the stiffness of

the wire
 b. Resistance due to Total pulling

2R friction force
c. Live load
e
e
P d

z(zo) Q
The Deflection of the Wire
Rope on a Pulley
Due to the stiffness of the wire

R cos  eQ  R cos  eF

 F R cos   e



Q R cos   e
2R e
1
R cos 
e
e 
P d e
1
z(zo) R cos 
Q
The Deflection of the Wire  2e 
Rope on a Pulley
F  Q1  
 R cos  
Resistance due to friction

P  Q  F0  2Q

d'
 M  P 
 2
2R
d' d'
N  Q  F     Q
e
2R R
e
P d

z(zo) Q
The Deflection of the Wire
Rope on a Pulley
 Total pulling force

F  Q1  resistance due to regidity  resistance due to friction 

 2e d'  F 2e d'
F  Q1        1 
 R cos  R Q R cos  R

1



2e d
 0.1
R cos  D  10
a. Pulleys for gain in force:
Single Movable Pulley for a Gain in Force
Where: c = speed of force
v = speed of load
s = distance the force moves
h = distance the load moves
Z(Z) 0

s 0

s s=2h
c c=2v
F + So = Q , F =  So =  (Q –F)
F =  Q - F
v
h Q
Q
 
Fo 2 1 
F Q 


2
1  F
Q
1 
b. Pulleys for gain in speed

h
s
v
2
z(z) v
h
c
0

s 0

Q
s 2
c
F  Q  S 0  Q  Q  Q1   
Single Movable Pulley for
a Gain in Speed
Fo 2Q 2
  
F Q1    1  
Pulley systems for gain in force
Rope running off a fixed pulley
• The number of parts of the line on which the weight is
suspended is also equal to the number of pulleys z.
• The transmission ratio i of the system is equal to z.
 z(z)
0 z(z) 0

s 2 s 1 s 1 s 2 s 3

Q
Q
1 n 1
Q  S1 
Total tension in the rope  n1  1
Q  S1  S 2  S 3    S n Q n   1 
F  S1   Q  n 
1   n 1    1 
S1 S1 S  
 S1   2    n11  n1    1 
  
1   n 1
 S1

1
n 1
 n 1
 n2
  1    n  
  z   1 
Rope sheaves
• The minimum diameter ( Dmin) of the sheave should be at least
ten times the diameter of the hemp rope. Whereas Dmin for
wire rope should be
Dmin  e1  e2  d
• Where: e1= factor depending on the hoisting device
and its service
e2=factor depending on the rope construction
d = wire rope diameter
 2 tan 
tan max 
D
1
0.7 K
 max is the allowable angular
deviation of the wire rope

h=1.5d to 2d
• Depending on the peripheral velocity of the sheave hub hole
surface, unit pressure should not exceed the following values:

V[m/s] 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

P[kgf/cm] 75 70 66 62 60 57 55 54
V[m/s] 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 -

P[kgf/cm] 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 -
Rope Drums
Drums for steel wire rope are made of cast iron.
Helical grooves are always used for wire ropes.
Number of turns on the drums (z)

Hi
z 2
D
i = ratio of the pulley system
D = drum diameter
H = height to which the load is raised
The value 2 in the equation is added to account for the idle (or holding) turns
• Length of the helix on the drum:

l  z t
• Leaving a length of about 5t for both sides flanges,
the full length of the drum L is:
 Hi 
L  7 t
 D 
• If two ropes are coiled on the drum, the full length of
the drum will be
 2 Hi 
L  9 t   1
 D 
• The wall thickness of cast iron drum can be
approximated by using the following formula:
w= 0.02D  (0.6 to 1.0) cm

• Strength of the Drum: During operation the drum is

subjected to the combined action of torsion bending and
compression, where the effect of the latter is much
larger.
 p
s


d
R

S
w

From Lames formula: At the inner surface

D 2  d0 2 D2
 in  pin  2 p out
D 2
 d0 2
D 2  d0 2
At the outer surface
D 2  d0 2 D2
 out  2 pin  p out
D 2
 d0 2
D 2  d0 2
Considering the forces in we have:

pin = 0 , pout = p , do = D  2w

D2
 in comp   2 pout
D 2  d0
2
Allowable compressive stresses:

For cast iron 15-32  all= 1,000 kgf/cm2 cast steel

Cast steel  all= 1,600 kgf/cm2 welded drums (St 42)
welded drums  all = 1,800 kgf/cm2
(St 42)
Allowable bending stresses:

For cast iron  all = 230 kgf/cm2

Steel casting  all= 1,800 kgf/cm2
Welded drums  all = 1,400 kgf/cm2
• Friction Drums for Ropes: are rope-driving drums in which
motion is transmitted by friction between the rope and drum.
There are three types of friction drums.
a. Simple friction drums are provided with helical grooves for
the rope, which coils around them in one or several turns.
 s 1 s 2

Gear Pinion

s 1
s 2

S1
Friction drum

Single Friction Drum

S1
 e  2n
S2 where S1  on coming force
2  running off (can be regulated by hand)
S
μ  coefficient of friction
peripheral force on drum n  number of coils
F  S1  S 2 e  2.718 the base of the natural logarithm
 b. Double-Drum Friction Drive: In this case the rope is wound
several times around two parallel drums rotating in the same
direction and driven by a single motor.
S1
S S1 
; n 1 e    n
S
S2 
S1 S 3   1 2 ; n
S 
e 1 ; e  1 e    n 1
s 1 sn+1

s 1

sn+1

Double Friction Drum I II

Total peripheral force on both drums
F  S 1  S n 1
The load on drum shaft I is QI  S1  S 2  S 3    S n

on drum shaft II is QII  S 2  S 3  S 4    S n 1

W  Q I  Q II  1 d
Losses in the bearings are D

Where, 1
= coefficient of friction in the bearings
d = diameter of the bearing journal
D = diameter of the drum.
The total efficiency of the drive is

S1

F W
c. Capstan: are usually arranged vertically, driven by an
electromotor through a worm gear drive and used to move
railway cars.

S1 s

S2 
2

s 1

 2 n
e
• The load is usually handled by means of chain or rope
slings attached to hooks of which the two most
popular designs are standard (single) and Ramshorn
(double) hooks.
Forged Standard Hooks
Hook Dimensions
• For the shank:
4Q
t    all  500kgf/cm
d 1
2

The unit stress on the saddle of the hook.

Q M M 1 
     
A Ar Ar x   r
 r  R2  
  1  
 2
b  b1  b2   ln
R2
 b1  b 
2 
A  d  R1 

1 y
A yr
 dA

R2

M  Q.r  Q0.5a  e1  R1

d
d2 d1

The Critical Cross-section I-II b2 b1

r
Tensile Stress in the Inner Fibre
Substituting
M  Q0.5a e1  r  0.5a  e1 Y  e1 and h=a

Q Q0.5 a  e1  0.5  e1  1 y
I   Q  
 r Ar  yr

Q  0.5 a  e1   1 y 

 1   1   
A  r   y  1 

Q 1 2e1
I      safe all - maximum tensile stress
A x a
 Compressive Stress in the Outer Fiber
Substituting

M  Q0.5a  e1  ; r  0.5a  e1 ; h  e1  e2 ;
r  0.5a  h  e2 and y  e2

 all maximum
Q 1 e2
 II    
A  a
< compressive stress
h
2  all should not exceed 1500 kgf/cm2.
Solid Triangular Eye Hooks
• Solid triangular eye hooks are usually employed in
cranes with high lifting capacity (over 100 tons) and
occasionally in medium power cranes.

Bending moment in the bow (from investigation):

Ql
M1 
6
Bending moment where the sides adjoin the bow
Q
M2 
13
Solid Triangular Eye Hook
Tensile force acting on the sides:
Q
P

2 cos
2
Compressive force P1 acting on the bow is
Q 
P1  tan
2 2
Maximum stress in the bow
M bend P Ql
  1   all M bend   P1 x
w A ;w 6
= Sectional modulus[cm3]
Where A = Cross-sectional area [cm2]
x = moment arm of the compressive force
 all = 800kgf/cm2
Hinged Triangular Hooks
• Unit stress in the links (assuming the bow in
suspended on four links)
Q
t 

4 cos  A'
2
Three-Joint Built-up Hooks
 t ,all =1,200 kgf/cm2
The unit stress in the bow (assumed as a curved beam)

p1 M M e1 Q
    M   P1  x
A AR xAR R  e2 2
;
Q 
P1  tan
2 2

where e1 = distance between the neutral axis

and the fibers carrying the greatest load.
For an ellipse,
2 4 6
1 a  1 a  5 a
x        
4 R 8 R 64  R 

Where a is the major axis of the ellipse or the diameter of a

circle. The shank eye stress is check by Lame Formula.

t 

p D2  d 2  Where , p
Q

D2  d 2 4 cos bd
2

b = eye width
Crosspieces for Hooks
The crosspiece is forged from steel and
provided with turned trunnions at the ends.

Crosspiece for Hooks

The maximum bending moment is
 Q Q d1 Q  d 
M max     =   1 
2 2 2 4 4  2 
M max
b 
W I h
where W = section modulus  ; c
c 2
1 bh 3 1 d2h3
W  -
12  h  12  h 
 
2  
2
h 2b h2d2 h2 6 M max
  = b  d 2  , b    all
6 h 2 b  d 2 
6 6
 all = 600 – 1000 kgf/cm2 for carbon steel
96
• Arresting gear is used to hold the load being lifted
without interfering in the hoisting process but
preventing the load from coming down due to
gravity.
• Brakes are employed for controlling the speed of the
load lowering and holding the suspended load at
rest.

97
A. Arresting gear
There are a number of arresting mechanisms used in hoisting
machineries.
i. Ratchet gearing
Consists of ratchet gear and pawl. The teeth in the ratchet are
so arranged that the ratchet runs free when the load is being
raised but prevents the load from coming down because of its
own weight.

98 a b
 Ratchet Gearing with External Teeth

Teeth of the Ratchet

The linear unit pressure is the guiding factor for the
determination of the length of the teeth (width of pawl bearing
area). Furthermore the teeth is checked for bending.
99
 F
b
p
Ratchet Teeth where b = width of pawl

p = linear unit pressure

= 50 to 100 kg/cm for steel pawl and cast iron ratchet wheel
and
=100150 to 300 kg/cm for steel pawl and steel ratchet wheel)
• Tangential force
2T
F 
D
Fh
b 
a 2b
Usually a = m , h = 0.75 m and b  m
6
D=zm

t
D  z  t D  z and D  zm

t
where m


101
 2 m
2T
0.75m  m  b en d
zm 6

9T T T
m 3  23  2
zbend zbend 3 b
z  bend
 m

Material of Ratchets 
b
m
0.33 or 0.55 % C cast steel 1. 5 - 4
0.3 % C steel or 0.45 % C with additive 1- 2

102
Checking for Eccentricity of Pawl

M bend F
  Where M bend  F  e
W A
b  x2
W 
6Fe F 6
  2    all  F 1  6e 
bx bx bx  x
103
 Pawl Pin
b 
M be nd  F  a 
2 
M b en d
 b en d 
W

b  d 3
F   a   W   b en d    b en d
 2  32

2T  b 
  a   0.1d   bend
3 20T 0.5b  a 
zm  2
d  3
 zm bend

104
• The pin is subjected to impact loading, thus we take reduced
safe bending stress.
 bend= 300 to 500 kgf/cm2.
• The best conditions for a pawl sliding over the ratchet teeth
are obtained when   , where ρ is the friction angle.

105 Pawl Sliding over the Ratchet

ii. Friction Arresters
• Friction arresters operate noiselessly compared to the
operation of toothed arresting gear. However, the pressure on
the pawl pivot and shaft is considerably high. Thus they have
a limited application.

The force on the pawl

pivot is :

F
F0 
tan 
106 Friction Arrester
iii. Roller Ratchets
• A roller wedged between the follower and the driver is
subject to the action of normal forces N1 and N 2 and
tangential friction forces  1 N 1 and  2 N 2 . With the roller in
equilibrium, the resultant force R1  R2. For equilibrium;
thus . N1  N 2

107
Design Diagram of a Ratchet Roller
The transmitted torque is
 D
T  z 2 N 2  
 2 
where z = number of rollers (usually z = 4)
  0.06
 1 for the roller and the driver and
 2 for for the roller and the follower)

When   tan  tan (the case of locking)
2

N  N1  N 2 
2T
N 

zD tan
108 2
 N
The length of the roller is l 
p

Where, p = linear unit pressure, and its allowable value

is 450 kg/cm for hardened quality steel (e.g.:
C15...C60).

109
• Brakes can be classified based on three purpose as
– Parking (holding) brakes
– Lowering brakes
– Combined holding and lowering brakes
Based on the operational aspect
• Operated brakes
• Automatic brakes

110
A. Shoe brakes
i) Single Shoe Brakes
They are used to retard or stop unidirectional motions.
The pressure exerted by the cast iron shoe on the brake wheel
should be such that the friction force produced on the surface
of the wheel counter balance the peripheral force

2T
N   F
D
111
Diagrams of Single Shoe Brakes
P P P

Acting on the Drum Acting on the Drum Acting on the Drum

N N N
F F F

N N N
l

N N N
a
Acting on the Shoe Acting on the Shoe Acting on the Shoe

I
I I
b
b=0
b

(a) (b) (c)

112
 • Force P at the end of the brake lever depends on the position of
pivot I. The friction force acts relative to the brake wheel in a
direction opposite to F.

For case (a), taking moment about I,

 M I  0  P  l  N  b  N  a  0
+ counter clockwise & - clockwise
aN  Nb
P 
N
a  b 
l l
113
 but N  F ; N
F

F a 
P
F
a  b P 
  b 

l l  

where the upper sign refers to counter clockwise wheel

rotation

a Fa
For case (b), P N 
l l

114
• For case (c), P
F a

  b



l  

In actual designs the self-braking effect should be

avoided for single shoe brakes i.e. cases (a) and (c) act
arresters when
a
b

This does not happen in the case of (b).
115
ii. Double Shoe Brakes

Diagram of a Shoe Brake

116 Applied by a Weight
• The total peripheral braking force produced by both shoes in
the rubbing surface is:
2 M br
T 
D
Force to apply the brake force F1 is:
T1  T2  D  M b r  N 1  N 2 
D
2 2

D
N 1  N 2 
2

Taking moments about the pivots:

F1  N 1 1  N 1b  0
117
 F1 
N1  i.e., normal force on the left lever
 1  b
shoe and in the same way
F1 
N2 
 1  b

D  F1  F1   DF1   
M br      
1 1
2             b   b 
 
 1 b 1 b  2  1 1 

DF1  2 1 DF1  1
  
1  2b2 1  2b2
2 2
2

M br 1  2b2
2

F1    M br  1
 2b 2 (is a small value)
118 D 1 D 
• Unit pressure between the wheel and the shoe of
the left lever is:
N1
p , where A = shoe bearing area
A

• Normal force on the right lever shoe is:

F1  M b r  1  b 
N2  N2  
 1  b D 1

119
B. Band Brakes
• In band brakes the braking torque is obtained due to
friction of flexible band over the surface of a brake
wheel.
• The resistance of friction due to friction acting on the
surface of contact with the drum is equal to the
difference in the forces on the band ends, and this
force equalises the peripheral force F, i.e.

F  S on  S off
120
Diagrams for Determining Tension in the Band and Unit Pressure on the Drum

121
• From Euler's formula:

Son  Soff  e  S on  F e 

S on  S on  e   F  e ,  
S o n e   1  Fe 

Fe   F  e 
Son   S off  S on  F   F
e 1 , e 1

 e   e   1  F
S off  F
 
, S off  


e 1  e 1
122
 i. Simple Band Brakes
F
S off 
e   1

Peripheral force is:

2 M br
F 
D
M br = actual braking torque
123
ii. Differential Band Brakes
Moment equation relative to the pivot:
F  Soff a2  Son a1  0

The braking effort F is

S off a2  S on a1
F 



S off a2  S off e  a1


S off a 2  e  a1 
124
 
 iii.Additive-Action Band Brake

The moment equation at the pivot is

F  Son  a  Soff  a  0
125

F 
a
S on  S off 


e   1

a


S off e   S off  
aSoff

e 
 a
 1   P e  1
 
Thermal Calculations of Shoe Brakes
i. Energy Absorbed by the Brake
• The kinetic energy of the body is absorbed by the brake,

Pure translation

E1  1 / 2m v12  v22 
Pure rotation

E2  1 / 2 I 12  22 
Combination of translation and rotation

126 E  E1  E2
• Objects being lowered:
E3  mgh1  h2 
• Total Energy absorbed by the brake:
E  E1  E2  E3

•The Energy absorbed by the brake wheel and transformed into heat must
be dissipated to the surrounding air in order to avoid excessive
temperature rise in the brake lining.

• The heat dissipated may be estimated by

H d  C t1  t2 Ar
127
 C = heat dissipation factor/ coefficient of heat transfer.
t1  t 2= temperature difference b/n the exposed radiating surface and
the surrounding air.
Ar = area of radiating surface.
• The rise in the temperature of the brake drum
t  H g / m.c

H g = Heat generated by the brake

c = specific heat of the material of the brake drum
m = mass of the brake

128
 Hoisting and Traveling Gear
• Hoisting mechanisms are sub divided into two groups:

• Hand power drives

• Individual power drives

• Power drive
• A common drive for
several mechanisms
Hoisting Gear
a. Hand Power Hoisting Mechanisms
• The motion is transmitted from the handle
I through three pairs of speed reducing
gears to a drum fitted on shaft IV.
• For the hand operated hoisting
mechanism
Useful work: A0  Qh

Work done: A  Ks
Where, K= actual effort applied
S= path of the force k corresponding to Q
 Cont’d
• The efficiency of the mechanism:
Qh Qv
 = A0  
A Ks Kc
Ko Ko
 
K K o W

Where, W = total resistance due to friction in

the mechanism
c = the speed of the point of application
of the drawing effort (30 to 45 m/min)
 Cont’d
• Effort applied by operator:
Qh Qv
K= =
s c

• Total efficiency:  =  pull . drum . ngear

where  pull = pulley efficiency  0. 94
 drum = drum efficiency  0. 98
 gear = efficiency of one pair of gears  0. 99

• The total transmission ratio of the mechanism i is:

moment of load MQ QR
i= = =
moment of force  Mk Ka
 Cont’d
• With pulley available Q should be replaced by the
tension in the rope
Q
S 
2
• The lifting speed:
Fc
v
Q
b. Hoisting Mechanism with an Individual Electric
Drive
• At a constant lifting speed, (v = constant) the power
in hp developed by the electric motor is:
Qv
N=
75

• The torque on the motor shaft[kg-cm]

N
M  = 71,620
nmotor
Where, nmotor = motor shaft rpm
 Cont’d
• The transmission ratio between the motor and the
drum is:
motor speed n
i= = motor
drum speed ndrum

• The speed of the rope on the drum is:

v drum  v  i pull
Where, i pull = pulley transmission ratio ( i pull >1 for gain in force)
• Drum Speed [rpm]: V drum
n drum =
D
Where, vdrum= speed of the rope on the drum [m/min]
D = drum diameter [m]
Travelling Gear
Rail Travelling Mechanisms
Travelling mechanism of crane trolleys
1. Hand-operated drive
2. Individual power drive
3. Rope power drive
Rail Travelling Mechanisms (Hand Trolleys)

• Motion is transmitted from wheel I due to the effort K through

two pair of gears to the travelling wheels, wheel III.

Travelling Mechanism of Crane Trolleys

 Cont’d
Wheel load:
Q + Go
a) P max =
4 Where, Go = wight of the trolley

b) When the load is suspended asymmetrically in trolleys with

two hoists, the force exerted on the wheels is
approximately equal to:
Go Q b2
Pmax = A  + .
4 2 b

Go Q b1
P min = B  + .
4 2 b
Moment of Resistance
• If the resistance to motion in a horizontal direction is denoted
by W.
• The moment of resistance relative to the axle of the wheel at
steady motion is:
d
M = WR = (Q + G o )  + (Q + G o ) k
d 2
= (Q + G o ) (  + k)
2
Q + Go d Q + Go
W= ( + k)= ( d + 2k)
R 2 D
Where, d = diameter of wheel journal [cm]
 = coefficient of friction in journal
k = coefficient of rolling friction
 Cont’d
• Coefficient of resistance to motion or traction force:

=
W d + 2k [Kgf/ton]
Q + Go =
D

Where, D = diameter of traveling wheel

• Additional resistance due to the friction on the

flanges of wheels:
W =  (Q + Go )tons . w
where, for sliding bearing
 = 1.25 - 1.4
 = 2.5 - 5.2 for rolling bearing
Values of Traction Factors (Coefficient of Resistance to Motion)
 Cont’d
• The transmission ration between the driving and
driven shafts is:
M WR
i= =
 Mo  kRo
• The total efficiency of the mechanism  is given
by:
 =  o . 2 gear  tw
Where,  o = efficiency of operating wheel  0.93
 gear= efficiency of one pair of gear
 tw = efficiency of traveling wheel  0.97
 Cont’d
• The travelling speed is:

60   K  c  Ro
v
M

Where, c = mean peripheral speed of operating wheel

(0.8 – 1.0 m/s)
K = effort applied by operator
Ro = wheel radius of crank handle [cm]
Crane Trolley with an Individual Electric Drive
The motion transmission principle is similar to that of hand operated
crane trolley except that the manual effort K is replaced by an
electromotor.

Travelling Mechanism
of an Electrically
Driven Crane Trolley
 Cont’d
• The power developed by the motor is
Wv
N=
75

Where,  = total efficiency of the machine

W = resistance to motion =  (Q + Go )tons  

• The transmission ratio is:

motor speed n
i= = mot
travelling wheel speed ntw
v
• The speed of the travelling wheel is: n 
D
Travelling Mechanisms of Overhead Travelling
Cranes
Hand Propelled Overhead Travelling Cranes
• In an ordinary four-wheeled crane, the maximum
force acting on the wheels arises when the loaded
trolley is located in the so-called dead section of the
span.
 Cont’d

Travelling Mechanism of a Hand-

propelled overhead Travelling Crane
 Cont’d
• The maximum force acting on a travelling wheel of a
four-wheeled crane
G L Q + G o 
L P max --  - (L - e) = 0
2 2 2

G Q + Go L-e
P max = + ( )
4 2 L

• Similarly,
G Q + Go e
P min = + .
4 2 L
where G = weight of the crane (without trolley) and
Go = weight of the trolley
 Cont’d
• The resistance to motion:
W   Q  Go  G tons 

Where, =
d + 2k and  = 1.4 to 1.8
D

• The transmission ratio:

i=
M
=
WR
 =  o  gear  t
 Mo  KRo
60KcRo
• Speed of the traveling mechanism: v= [m/min]
WR
where c = mean peripheral speed of the operating wheel (0.8 to 1 m/s)
Ro =crank handle radius
M = moment of resistance to motion referred to the shaft of
the traveling crane [kg-cm]
Electrically Driven Overhead Travelling Cranes

Resistance to motion is: W =  (Q + G + G o )

 Cont’d
• The maximum moment arises when the loaded trolley
is in the dead section of the span.
 G Q  Go
M ' dII    L  e R
2 L 
G Q + Go e
P min = + 
4 2 L
• To overcome friction:
d Wv
Z > W -  F N=
D 75
Where Z = adhisive force. Higher than resistance force bearing friction force.
Travelling Mechanisms of Cantilever and Monorail
Cranes
The maximum force acting
on the vertical travelling
wheels is:

m ax V Q + Go + G
F ver = =
2 2

Where V = vertical thrust

Q = weight of the load
G = weight of crane (without trolley)
Go = weight of trolley
 Cont’d
• The maximum force acting on the horizontal rollers
is:
max H 1 = (Q + G o ) a + G e1 = V  e
F hor =
2 2 h1 2 h1
where H1 = horizontal thrust

• The resistance to motion W is:

Q + Go + G d (Q + G o ) a + G e1 d
W= (  1 + k) + 2 (  2 + k)
R 2 R2h1 2
Ve
= V + 
h1 Where d1 and d2 are diameter
of the hinges
e
= V (1 + )
h1