Seeley’s

ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables

pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

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Chapter 2

The Chemical Basis of Life

Lecture Outline

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Basic Chemistry
Matter: anything that occupies space and has
mass (solid, liquid, or gas)
Mass: amount of matter in an object
Weight: gravitational force acting on object

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Elements and Atoms

Element:
• simplest form of matter
• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K,
Na, Cl
Atom:
• smallest particle of an
element
• contains protons, electrons,
and neutrons
Figure 2.1
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Planetary Models of Atomic Structure

Figure 2.2
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Subatomic Particles
Proton: positive charged particle located inside
the nucleus
Neutron: neutral charged particle located inside
the nucleus
Electron: negative charged particle located
outside the nucleus

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Model of an Atom

Figure 2.1
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Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Atomic number: the number of protons in each
atom
Mass number: the number of protons and
neutrons in each atom

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Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds occur when outermost
electrons (valence shell electrons) are
transferred or shared between atoms
Types of chemical bonds
• Ionic
• Covalent
• Hydrogen

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Ion and Ionic Bonding

Ion: a charged atom formed because of a
donation or gain of an electron(s)
• Example: Na+
Ionic bonding occurs when there is an attraction
between two oppositely charged ions
• Example: NaCl

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Ionic Bonding

Figure 2.3
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Covalent Bonding 1

Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share one or

more pairs of electrons
• Example: hydrogen molecule

Polar covalent bonds form when there is an unequal

sharing of electrons
• Example: water (H2O)

Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical charge

Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical electrical
charge

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Covalent Bonding 2

Figure 2.4
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Hydrogen Bonding 1

Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end

and a negative end
A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end
of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the
negative end of another polar molecule
The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the
ionic or covalent bonds

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Polar Covalent Bonds

Polar covalent bonded
molecules, like water,
have a positive end
and a negative end

Figure 2.5
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Hydrogen Bonding 2

A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end

of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the
negative end of another polar molecule
The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the
ionic or covalent bonds

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Hydrogen Bonds

Figure 2.6
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Molecules and Compounds

Molecule:
• 2 or more atoms chemically combine
• Example: water (H2O)
Compound:
• chemical combination of 2 or more different types
of atoms
• Example: NaCl

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Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when there is a
formation or breaking of chemical bonds between
atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds.
Reactants: substances that enter into the reaction
Products: substances that result from the reaction

A+B  C+D
Reactants Product

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Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis reaction:
• build a new molecule
• energy-requiring
• Example: ADP + P  ATP
Decomposition reaction:
• break down molecule
• energy-releasing
• Example: ATP  ADP + P
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Energy and Chemical Reactions 1

Figure 2.8
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Energy and Chemical Reactions 2

Exchange reaction:
• combination of synthesis and decomposition
reactions
• Example: AB + CD  AC + BD
• Example: HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O

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Energy and Chemical Reactions 3

Reversible reactions occur when the reaction

can run in the opposite direction, so that the
products are converted back to the original
reactants.
CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3
Equilibrium: when the rate of product formation
equals the rate of reactant formation

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Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Work is the moving of matter.
Kinetic energy is energy in motion
Potential energy is stored energy

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Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is a form of potential energy
stored in chemical bonds
Food molecules such as glucose contain
potential energy
An example of a reaction that releases energy is
the breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a
phosphate group
ATP  ADP + P
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Rate of Chemical Reactions 1

The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds

is influenced by several factors:
• concentration of the reactants
• temperature
• catalyst

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Rate of Chemical Reactions 2

Concentration of the reactants: within limits the

higher the concentration of reactants the faster
the rate
Temperature: within limits, the higher the
temperature the faster the rate
Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction without
itself being permanently changed or depleted.

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Acids and Bases

Acid: a proton H+ donor
• pH below 7
• Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)
Base: a proton H+ acceptor
• pH above 7
• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)

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pH Scale

Figure 2.9
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Inorganic Chemistry versus Organic
Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances
that do not contain carbon
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-
containing substances
Exception: some carbon containing compounds
are not organic in that they do not also contain
hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)

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Organic Molecules
Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with
other atoms makes it possible the formation of
large, diverse, complicated molecules for life.
The four major groups of organic molecules
essential to living organisms are carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

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Carbohydrates 1

Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, O
• H:O is a 2:1 ratio
• Example: C6H12O6

• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.

• Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar (1 sugar)
• Examples: glucose and fructose

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Carbohydrates 2

Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose
Polysaccharide:
• many sugars
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

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Carbohydrates 3

Figure 2.11a
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Functions of Carbohydrates
Short-term energy storage
Converted to glucose quickly
Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
Brain cells require glucose

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Characteristics of Lipids
Contain C, H, O
Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to carbon
than do carbohydrates
Insoluble in water
Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,
phospholipids

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Functions of Lipids
Long term energy storage
Insulates against heat loss
Protective cushion for organs
Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane
structure

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Types of Lipids
Saturated:
• single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
• Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, eggs
Unsaturated:
• one or more double covalent bonds between carbons
• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil

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Triglycerides

Figure 2.12
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Fatty Acids

Figure 2.13
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Phospholipids

Figure 2.14
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Characteristics of Proteins
Contains C, H, O, N
Amino acids are the building blocks
20 different naturally occurring amino acids
Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and
carboxyl group
Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply is
required

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Amino Acid Structure and Bonding

Figure 2.16
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Linear Sequence of Amino Acids in
a Protein

Figure 2.16c
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Protein Folding

Figure 2.16 (d) and (e)

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Functions of Proteins
Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
Part of the hemoglobin molecule
Act as enzymes
Immune system functions
Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
Part of the cell membrane

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Protein Denaturation
Protein denaturation occurs when the hydrogen
bonds that maintain shape of a protein are
broken and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
Factors that can cause denaturation are: high
temperatures and/or improper pH

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Enzymes
Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the
rate at which biochemical reactions proceed
without the enzyme being permanently changed.
Enzymes work by lowering the energy of
activation.

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Activation Energy and Enzymes

Figure 2.17
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Enzyme Action

Figure 2.18
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Nucleic Acids
Composed of C, H, O, N, P
Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid)
Nucleotides are the building blocks
Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base,
phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar

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Structure of DNA

Figure 2.19
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

ATP is an especially important organic molecule
found in all living organisms.
It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with
the organic base adenine) and three phosphate
groups.
ATP is often called the energy currency of cells
because it is capable of both storing and
providing energy.

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Structure of ATP

Figure 2.20
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