BUILDING

CONTRUCTION-VIII

ASSIGNMENT- 02

ANSHU GUPTA (2/11)

Q-1) Sketch and discuss the components, methods of
fabrication, and assembly of a steel skeleton frame, for tall
buildings.

Steel frame is a building technique with a "skeleton frame" of

vertical steel columns and horizontal I-beams, constructed in a
rectangular grid to support the floors, roof and walls of a building
which are all attached to the frame. The development of this technique
made the construction of the skyscraper possible.
Besides this many new frame methods have been developed over
the years whish are listed below on the next page.

STEEL FRAME STRUCTURES

The construction of a framework of structural steel involves two
principal operations:
•Fabrication
•Erection.

Fabrication involves the processing of raw materials to form

the finished members of the structure.

Erection includes all rigging, hoisting, or lifting of members to their

proper places in the structure and making the finished connections
between members. A wide variety of structures are erected using
structural steel.
Basically, they can be listed as buildings, bridges, and towers; most
other structures are modifications of these three.

There are three basic types of steel construction. These may be

designated as:
•wall-bearing construction,
•skeleton construction,
•long-span construction.
In principle, steel erection involves positioning, aligning and securing the
components on prepared foundations to form a complete frame.
Steel erection consists of four main tasks:
• Establishing that the foundations are suitable and safe for erection to
commence.
• Lifting and placing components into position, generally using cranes but
sometimes by jacking. To secure components in place bolted connections will
be made, but will not yet be fully tightened.
• Aligning the structure, principally by checking that column bases are lined and
level and columns are plumb.
• Bolting-up which means completing all the bolted connections to secure and
impart rigidity to the frame

The procedures can be illustrated for a skeletal steel frame

Careful planning is necessary to realise the advantage of speed offered by steel

construction.
There are three main planning factors that affect the buildability of the scheme.
These are:
• Practical erection sequence. The location of bracing or other means of
maintaining structural equilibrium are crucial here.
• Simplicity of assembly. Simply-assembled connections are the main factors
here.
• Logical trade sequences.

Site work tends to be labour intensive and hence relatively expensive and the
primary aim of the programme should be to minimise costs by shortening the
time on site.
The principal design factors contributing to buildability are:
• Repetition and standardisation. There are two aspects to standardisation:
repetition of the same building type (eg the portal shed) and
common/standard details for connections.
• Achievable tolerances. If 'tight' tolerances are specified too tight, then special
controls will be needed and possibly specially-engineered details.
• Frame type. Here, the primary choice is between simple and rigid-jointed
frames, the former being much quicker and easier to erect.
• Floor systems. For multi-storey frames, the choice of floor system will affect
the erection sequence as it determines the stability of the part erected
structure, and how quickly other trades can follow-on.
Various components of a steel skeleton frame:

The casting, erection, connection and finishing of building components require a

high level of skilled manual work onsite.
The problem with the shortage of skilled personnel and the need to increase
productivity has prompted research and development into robotics in
construction industry.
COMPONENTS:
The vertical or gravity load carrying system of a multi-storey steel-framed
building comprises a system of vertical columns interconnected by horizontal
beams, which supports the floors and roofing. The resistance to lateral loads is
provided by diagonal bracing or shear walls or rigid frame action between the
beams and columns. Thus, the components of a typical steel-framed
structure are:
· Beams
· Columns
· Floors
· Bracing Systems
· Connections

Beam-and-Column Construction
•This is often called as “skeleton construction”. The floor slabs, partitions,
exterior walls etc. are all supported by a framework of steel beams and
columns.
•In such a beam and column construction, the frame usually consists of
columns spaced 6 -10 m apart, with beams and girders framed into them
from both directions at each floor level.
•Generally columns used in the framework are hot-rolled I-sections or
concrete encased steel columns. They give unobstructed access for beam
connections through either the flange or the web.
•Depending on the loading requirements exceed the capacity of available
section, additional plates are welded to the section.
•The selection of beam sections depends upon the span, loading and
limitations on overall depth from headroom considerations.
•Simple beams with precast floors or composite metal deck floors are likely to
be the most economical for smaller spans. For larger spans, plate-girders or
plated-beams are used.
 One of the following three types structural systems is used to resist the lateral
loads and limit the drift within acceptable range mentioned above:
· Rigid Frames
· Shear walls.
· Braced frames
Combinations of these systems and certain other advanced forms are also used
for very tall buildings.

Rigid Frames
Rigidly jointed frames or sway-frames are those with moment resisting
connections between beams and columns. However, moment resisting
connections may be necessary in locations where loads are applied eccentrically
with respect to centre line of the columns.
Three types of commonly employed moment resisting connections are shown in
Fig. 11. The connection shown in Fig. 11(a) and 11(c) are more economical.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL FORMS
The bracing systems discussed so far are not efficient for buildings taller than 60
stories.
There are more advanced types of structural forms that are adopted in steel
framed multi-storeyed buildings larger than 60 storey high.
Common types of advanced structural forms are:

1. Framed -Tube Structures

•The framed tube is one of the most significant modern developments in high-rise
structural form. The frames consist of closely spaced columns, 2 - 4 m between
centres, joined by deep girders. The idea is to create a tube that will act like a
continuous perforated chimney or stack.
•The lateral resistance of framed tube structures is provided by very stiff moment
resisting frames that form a tube around the perimeter of the building. This
structural form offers an efficient, easily constructed structure appropriate for
buildings having 40 to100 storeys.
•When lateral loads act, the perimeter frames aligned in the direction of loads act
as the webs of the massive tube cantilever and those normal to the direction of
the loading act as the flanges.
•Aesthetically, the tube looks like the grid-like façade as small windowed and is
repetitious and hence use of prefabrication in steel makes the construction faster.
2. Braced tube structures
Further improvements of the tubular system can be made by cross bracing the
frame with X-bracing over many stories.
As the diagonals of a braced tube are connected to the columns at each
intersection, they virtually eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the flange
and web frames. As a result the structure behaves under lateral loads more like a
braced frame reducing bending in the members of the frames. Hence, the spacing
of the columns can be increased and the depth of the girders will be less,
thereby allowing large size windows than in the conventional framed tube
structures.

3. Tube-in-Tube Structures
This is a type of framed tube consisting of
an outer-framed tube together with an
internal elevator and service core. The
inner tube may consist of braced frames.
The outer and inner tubes act jointly in
resisting both gravity and lateral loading in
steel-framed buildings. However, the outer
tube usually plays a dominant role because
of its much greater structural depth. This
type of structures is also called as Hull
(Outer tube) and Core (Inner tube)
structures.

4. Bundled Tube
The bundled tube system can be visualised as an assemblage of individual
tubes resulting in multiple cell tube. The increase in stiffness is apparent. The
system allows for the greatest height and the most floor area. In this system,
introduction of the internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges.
Hence, their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single tube
structure and their contribution to the lateral stiffness is greater.
Shear Walls
Specially designed reinforced concrete walls parallel to the directions of load are
used to resist a large part of the lateral loads caused by wind or earthquakes by
acting as deep cantilever beams fixed at foundation. These elements are called as
shear walls.
Frequently buildings have interior concrete core walls around the elevator, stair and
service wells. Such walls may be considered as shear walls.
The advantages of shear walls are
(i) they are very rigid in their own plane and hence are effective in limiting
deflections and
(ii) they act as fire compartment walls. Shear walls have lesser ductility and may
not meet the energy required under severe earthquake

Braced frames
•To resist the lateral deflections, the simplest method from a theoretical standpoint
is the intersection of full diagonal bracing or X-bracing. The X-bracing system works
well for 20 to 60 storey height, but it does not give room for openings such as doors
and windows.
•To provide more flexibility for the placing of windows and doors, the K-bracing
system shown in Fig. 12(a) is preferred instead of X- bracing system. If, we need to
provide larger openings, it is not possible with K-bracing system; we can use the
full-storey knee bracing system shown in Fig. 12(b).
•Knee bracing is an eccentric bracing that is found to be efficient in energy
dissipation during earthquake loads by forming plastic hinge in beam at the point of
their intersection of the bracings with the beam.
Diagrid structure

The diagrid – diagonal grid structural system is widely used for tall buildings due to
its structural efficiency and aesthetic potential provided by the unique geometric
configuration of the system.
•The difference between conventional exterior-braced frame structures and
current diagrid structures is that, for diagrid structures, almost all the conventional
vertical columns are eliminated.
•This is possible because the diagonal members in diagrid structural systems can
carry gravity loads as well as lateral forces owing to their triangulated
configuration, whereas the diagonals in conventional braced frame structures carry
only lateral loads.
• Compared with conventional framed tubular structures without diagonals, diagrid
structures are much more effective in minimizing shear deformation because they
carry shear by axial action of the diagonal members, while conventional framed
tubular structures carry shear by the bending of the vertical columns.
•Diagrid structures do not need high shear rigidity cores because shear can be
carried by the diagrids located on the perimeter.

Braced structure Diagrid structure

Outrigger structure Outrigger structure

The outrigger and belt truss system is one of the lateral load resisting system in
which the external columns are tied to the central core wall with very stiff
outriggers and belt truss at one or more levels. When the lateral load acts on the
building, the bending of the core rotates the stiff outrigger arms, which is
connected to the core and induces tension and compression in the columns
Connections

The most important aspect of structural steel work for buildings is the design of
connections between individual frame components. Depending upon the
structural behaviour, the connections can be classified as following:
1. Simple connections - The connection is detailed to allow the beam end to
rotate freely and the beam behaves as a simply supported beam. Such a
connection transfers shear and axial forces between the connecting members but
does not transfer bending moment.
2. Rigid connections - The connection is detailed to ensure a monolithic joint such
that the angle between beam and column before deformation remains the same
even after deformation. Such a connection transfers shear, axial force and bending
moment from the beam to the column.
3. Semi-rigid connections - Due to flexibility of the joint some relative rotation
between the beam and column occurs. When this is substantial, the joints are
designed as semi-rigid. These connections are designed to transmit the full shear
force and a fraction of the rigid joint bending moment across the joint.

Recent advances in research on the topic have led to results that can be used in
practical analysis and design of semi-rigid connections.

RIGID CONNECTIONS
Ques. 7) Sketch and discuss the components, methods of
fabrication, and assembly of the superstructure of the case study
example of the tall building chosen by the student

The Capital Gate

The main structural element includes the core wall embodied in massive
amounts of steel and ‘vertical post tensioning’, as described by the site
engineers.

There are approximately 8,500 structural steel elements in the building, and
the diagonal is formed by creating triangular structures with diagonal support
tubular beams. Also discernible are the beginnings of the curve that will
gradually take on a sharper incline as work proceeds.
One can see the interlocking steel diagrids in grey and blue, being hoisted and
welded into their respective places.
FABRICATION

•13,000 tons of steel used.

•The structure features a cantilevered internal atrium at 17th and 18th floors
to accommodate the facilities of the projecting swimming pool and tea
lounge.
•Diagrid technology has been adopted in the construction of the structure.
•Each diamond of the external cladding is supported by the steel diagrid
panel.
•To maintain the required curved surface profile, every panel surface is slightly
deviating with respect to the adjacent panel surfaces.
•External diagrid members are of rectangular hollow tubes whereas the
internal diagrid members are of circular hollow pipes.
•External diagrid members provide secondary supports for the wave-shaped
‘Splash’ structure from 19th level down to the bottom, providing an attractive
sun shade to the tower.

INTERNAL DIAGRID- WITH CONNECTIONS BEING FASTENED

 CONNECTIONS
At the intersecting nodal points, the
hollow members have met with offsets in
two axes and floor beam met at the third
axes along their surfaces. As none of the
panels is coplanar to another, each node is
unique and formed with heavy thick
cruciform punch through the plates.

In order to minimise the member offsets at the nodal points, Diagrid

members have been oriented by the ‘bisection of bisecting planes’ method.
Another element that gives the building its form is the ‘splash’, which is an
independent structure that is fixed to the main building structure, and is
shaped like a wave, covering the existing grandstand.
The ‘splash’ creates a thermal cushion in the open space between the skins.
Similarly, the grandstand canopy will provide solar shading as it sweeps up to the
tower, with perforated metal sheeting allowing views to be maintained.
Ques. 8) Draw sketches and explain the various types of floor systems for tall
buildings. Also explain the floor system of the case study example of the tall
building chosen by the student.

Common types of floor system

The selection of an appropriate flooring in a steel-framed building depends on
various factors like the loads to be supported, span length, fire resistance desired,
sound and heat transmission, the likely dead weight of the floor, the facilities
needed for locating the services, appearance, maintenance required, time required
to construct, available depth for the floor etc. The different types of floors used in
steel-framed buildings are as follows:
One-way slab
Beam
Column
· Concrete slabs supported by open-web joists
· One-way and two-way reinforced concrete slabs
supported on steel beams
· Concrete slab and steel beam composite floors
· Profiled decking floors
· Precast concrete slab floors.

1. Concrete slabs supported with open-web joists

This is one of the most common types of floor slabs used for steel frame buildings in
U.S. Steel forms or decks are usually attached to the joists by welding and concrete
slabs are poured on top. This is one of the lightest types of concrete floors. For
structures with light loading, this type is economical.

2. One-way and two-way reinforced concrete slabs.

•These are much heavier than most of the newer light weight floor systems.
•This floor system is adopted for heavy loads.
One way slabs are used when the longitudinal span is two or more times the short
span. In one-way slabs, the main reinforcing bars are provided along the short
span direction.
The two-way concrete slab is used when aspect ratio of the slab supported along
all four edges i.e. longitudinal span/transverse span is less than 2.
The main reinforcement runs in both the directions.
3. Composite floors with a reinforced concrete slab and steel beams
Composite floors have steel beams bonded with concrete slab in such a way
that both of them act as a unit in resisting the total loads. The sizes of steel
beams are significantly smaller in composite floors, because the slab acts as an
integral part of the beam in compression. The composite floors result in
reduction of total floor depth. These advantages are achieved by utilising the
compressive strength of concrete by keeping all or nearly all of the concrete in
compression and at the same time utilises a large percentage of the steel in
tension.

4. Profiled - decking floors

Profiled and formed steel decking with a concrete topping has become popular
for office and apartment buildings. The structural behaviour is the same as that
of reinforced concrete slab with steel sheeting acting as centring until concrete
hardens and as the tension reinforcement after concrete hardens. It is popular
where the loads are not very heavy. The advantages of steel-decking floors are
given below:
(i) They do not need form work
(ii) The lightweight concrete is used resulting in reduced dead weight
(iii) The decking distributes shrinkage strains, thus prevents serious cracking
(iv) The decking stabilises the beam against lateral buckling, until the concrete
hardens
(v) The cells in decking are convenient for locating services.
More details of composite construction using profiled decking floors are
provided in chapters on Composite floors.
 5. Precast concrete floors
Precast concrete floors offer speedy erection and require only minimal formwork.
Lightweight aggregates are generally used in the concrete, making the elements
light and easy to handle. Typical precast concrete floor slab. It is necessary to use
cast in place mortar topping of 25 to 50 mm before installing other floor
coverings.
Larger capacity handling machines are required for this type of construction when
compared with those required for profiled decking. Usually pre-stressing of the
precast element is required.

Capital Gate’s base structure is a vertical

concrete core surrounded by a steel diagrid
describing the external form of the tower.
•Steel beams span between the two,
supporting metal deck and concrete
composite floor slabs. Above the base, the
atrium is formed with an internal steel
diagrid attached to the core.
•Steel girders span directly between the
external and internal diagrids, creating
column-free floor spaces with typical spans
of about 12 meters.
•The external diagrid is composed of hollow
square sections 600x600 mm on a side.
•They carry floors four meters high.
•Each diagrid is different length, depending
on the angle at which it leans.
•The diagrid connections are nodes located
at the floor slab levels where girders frame
in.
•The external diagrid nodes are also
designed for the façade panels to frame on
the outside.
Ques. 9) Explain in detail with the help of sketches the various types
of facade technologies, with respect to the materials, fabrication,
installation, in the case study example of the tall building chosen by
the student.

FAÇADE
The vertical and the horizontal cross-section of the tower are all unique.
There is an asymmetric shape- no two rooms are the same.
Every one of the 12500 panes of glass on the façade is a different size,
although each pane is triangular.
The Capital Gate uses the diagrid structure; it also features two diagrid systems,
an external diagrid the define the tower’s shape and an internal diagrid linked
to the central core by eight pin-jointed structural members
All 8250 steel diagrid members are different thickness, length and orientation
Each of the 822 diagrid nodes is a different size and angular configuration.

Facade of the Capital Gate is made out of massive diamond shaped glass
panels. Each panel is about 64 square meters, and is made up of 18 triangular
glass pieces.’

FAÇADE DESIGN
Capital Gate’s cladding consists of two distinct elements- a curtain wall glazing
system and metal mesh sun shading system.
•The curtain wall consists of diamond shaped panels stacked up floor by floor.
•Each unit is two-floors high and one diagrid wide, about 8x8 m on average
•They follow the geometry of the structural diagrid, which carries their weight
vertically.
•The panels are braced for wind resistance at the middle floor slab, which carries
the horizontal load.
• The curtain wall units are made of two components: steel and glass.
• It is a low- emissivity glass, very transparent, yet provides good thermal
insulation and glare reduction.
• The metal mesh sun shading is made of light-weight metal framing with stainless
steel wire mesh, 90% open.
• The “splash” is braced to the tower every five floors with round steel profiles.
•There are cross bracing rods at every floor.
• The connections of these elements are located at each diagrid node and extend
through the curtain wall joints to reach the steel structure.
• The upper half of the tower has a double skin façade to reduce the solar heat
gain at the hotel level.
•This is modified double façade, which recycles interior air from the guest rooms
into the façade cavity. Here it creates an insulating buffer between the hot outside
air and the cool inside air.

•The glass used in Capital Gate’s façade is a low emissivity glass never used in
the UAE. It’s designed to keep the inside of the building cool and eliminate
glare, while maintaining the transparency of the façade.