Research Methods II

OBJECTIVES
Unit 1
• Discuss the content and positioning of research (Exploration of
writing approaches for the academic and non-academic community)
• Explain the purpose of research
• Explain theories of research (inductive and deductive reasoning)
• Grounded theory
 Content and positioning of research (Exploration of
writing approaches for the academic and non-academic
community)
Content
• Speaks to the body of knowledge of the research

Positioning
• Subjects chosen
• Or specific area
 RESEARCH AGENDA
Every research should have a research agenda

 Definition of research

 Research Paradigms

 Theories

 Research Methodologies

 Research Design Formats

 Multi-method Research
To start a research paper
• Choose a topic which interests and challenges you
• Focus on a limited aspect
• Select a subject you can manage- make your thesis statement
• Make a research paper outline
• Organize your notes
• Write your first draft
• OUTLINE of a research paper basically has the following structure:
 Title Page (including the title, the author’s name, the name of a University or college,
and the publication date);
 Abstract (brief summary of the paper – 250 words or less);
 Introduction (background information on the topic or a brief comment leading into the
subject matter – up to 2 pages);
 Manuscript Body, which can be broken down in further sections, depending on the
nature of research:
o Materials and Methods
o Results (what are the results obtained)
o Discussion and Conclusion etc.
 Reference;
 Tables, figures, and appendix (optional);
OUTLINE of a research paper basically has
the following structure:
 Title Page (including the title, the author’s name, the name of a University
or college, and the publication date);
 Abstract (brief summary of the paper – 250 words or less);
 Introduction (background information on the topic or a brief comment
leading into the subject matter – up to 2 pages);
 Manuscript Body, which can be broken down in further sections,
depending on the nature of research:
o Materials and Methods
o Results (what are the results obtained)
o Discussion and Conclusion etc.
 Reference;
 Tables, figures, and appendix (optional);
 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a
theory, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field or
study.
Stated 2 general purposes:
1. Increasing knowledge within the discipline and,
2. Increasing knowledge within oneself as a professional
consumer of research in order to evaluate and understand new
developments within the discipline
• Increasing knowledge within the discipline can serve several sub-
purposes:
1. To create methods to assess important concepts/phenomena
2. To describe relevant phenomena and their relationships
3. To provide evidence for the efficacy of a therapeutic technique or
other change
4. To provide support for the theoretical base of the discipline
• Dissemination of new knowledge occur through an exceptionally large
numbers of professional journals, workshops, and continuing
education courses, as well as popular literature such as newspapers.
The following reasons may drive one to appreciate research and to
engage in it.

Importance

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness

3. An Aid to Business Success

4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities

6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information

7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

Theories of Research
 Research Methods
Research Types

Deductive Inductive
Approach Approach

In research, we often refer to the two broad methods of

reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches.
 Deductive Research Approach
• Deductive reasoning
Theory works from the
more general to the
Hypothesis more specific.
• Sometimes this is informally
called a "top-down"
Observation approach.
• Conclusion follows logically
Waterfall Confirmation from premises (available
facts)
 Inductive Research Approach
• Inductive reasoning works the other way,
moving from specific observations to broader Theory
generalizations and theories.
Tentative
• Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom Hypothesis
up" approach
• Conclusion is likely based on premises. Pattern

• Involves a degree of uncertainty. Observation Hill

Climbing
 Deductive vs. Inductive
Theory Theory

Tentative
Hypothesis
Hypothesis

Observation Pattern

Confirmation Observation Hill

Waterfall
Climbing
Similarities between Induction and Deduction

• Both are ways of Reasoning

What is reasoning?
• The power of the mind to think, understand, and form
judgments logically.
• what is right, practical, or possible: I’ll answer anything,
within reason.
• A way to think, understand, and form judgments logically.
• (reason out) find a solution (to a problem) by considering
possible options.
 Formal logic and Informal Logic
• Induction is Informal & Deduction is Formal Logic
• Formal logic has been described as the science of deduction. The study of
inductive reasoning is generally carried out within the field known as informal
logic or critical thinking.
 Comparison between induction and deduction

Logic vs. Validity

Induction
• Cannot be valid because it is not logical
• It is not logical because there is the possibility of more than one possible
• conclusion
• However, validity (the chance of getting the correct conclusion)
increases with the amount of relevant evidence (observations)
• An inductive statement always involves an element of doubt, as it is
possible to make a wrong inductive inference from correct information
 Logic vs. Validity Cont.
• Prejudices are unjustified inductive thinking – inappropriate generalizations
formed from limited data that have become a general belief.
Deduction
• Deduction is the form of reasoning by which a specific conclusion is inferred from
one or more premises. Deduction is used in science to determine if a hypothesis
is correct or not. In every day use, deduction is used to apply a general premise
to a specific situation.
 VALIDITY OF DEDUCTION

Two conditions have to be fulfilled for the deduction to valid.

• 1. The premises (generalization and test observation) need to be correct.
• 2. The form of the argument needs to be logical – leading to only one conclusion
(First premise is the universal set with two attributes, second is the test
observation with one attribute, and the conclusion with the other attribute – a
logical argument as it has only one possible conclusion)
• If 1 but not 2 – argument invalid & conclusion unacceptable
• If 2 but not 1 – argument valid but conclusion unacceptable
• If 1 and 2 – argument valid & conclusion acceptable
Examples of Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Deductive
All islands are surrounded by water, Jamaica is an island Jamaica is surrounded by
water.
If the brakes fail the car will not stop, if the car does not stop, there will be an
accident, therefore, if the brakes fail, there will be an accident.
Inductive
Most Jamaican men do not support their children, Mike is a Jamaican man, Mike
does not support his children.
Chronix is a rasta artist from Jamaica, all Jamaican artists are rastas’.
 GROUNDED THEORY
• Grounded theory refers to an inductive process of generating theory
from data.

• This is considered ground-up or bottom-up processing.

• Grounded theorists argue that theory generated from observations

of the empirical world may be more valid and useful than theories
generated from deductive inquiries.
• Grounded theorists criticize deductive reasoning since it relies upon
a priori assumptions about the world.

• However, grounded theory incorporates deductive reasoning when

using constant comparisons.

• In doing this, researchers detect patterns in their observations and

then create working hypotheses that directs the progression of the
inquiry.
 References

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason –
• S. Mitchell, (2017) The Biotechnology Centre, University of the West Indies Mona
Campus