CULTURAL VARIATIONS

AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENCES
(GENDER)
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you

should be able to discuss gender
roles in Philippine society from pre-
colonial to the present era.
How do gender roles vary

across cultures according to a
particular culture’s beliefs and
expectations concerning men
and women’s roles?
Gender and Gender Roles

People play different roles in

society depending on age and
occupation. There are jobs that
require a specific gender to perform
tasks while other jobs are open to
both men and women.
 Gender
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological
characteristics or traits related to males and
females based on certain social contexts.
 It is different from sex, which refers to the biological
characteristics that distinguish a male from a
female.
 Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while
gender makes a person masculine or feminine.
 Gender Roles
 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the
society expects a person to exhibit based on his or her sex.
 For example, in traditional Philippine society, women are
expected to be plain housewives and take care of their
children, while men are expected to be professionals and
provide the needs of their family.
 Another example is that society expects women to be more
emotional and sensitive while men are expected to be
strong and capable of doing things that women cannot do.
 Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine
Society
In pre-colonial Philippines, males and

females enjoyed the same rights and
privileges. Different social functions were
assigned to different members of society.
There were functions that were specifically
given to males, females, or both.
Gender Roles in Philippine Society During
the Colonial Period
Gender roles during the colonial period
changed drastically. Women were
restrained from other activities outside
their homes, while men were given
more social functions. These roles also
changed as the Philippines was
occupied by new colonizers.
 With the coming of the Spaniards and the
introduction of Catholicism, the babaylan lost
their role in the religious life of the community.
This role was taken over by Catholic priests.
Women were relegated to doing household
chores and taking care of children. More often
than not, young women were not sent to school
but instead trained to be good wives and mothers
for their future families. Some women were also
forced to marry for economic and political gain.
 During the American period, women had more freedom in
society. They were allowed to study and work in any field
they wanted. They also adopted American values. Men
and women became equal in the sense that it became
acceptable for both genders to have jobs and be
educated.
 Although men and women were able to maintain their

status in society during the Japanese period, women

were usually kept inside their houses to protect them
from abusive Japanese soldiers. Men also became busy
defending the country, with most of them serving as
 Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society

 At present, Philippine society is more open to allowing

both men and women to perform different tasks not
based solely on gender, but on an individual’s
capabilities and strengths. For example, fields like
engineering, architecture, and medicine, which are
often associated with men, have long been open to
women. Likewise, there are also lots of male teachers,
nurses, chefs, and hairdressers nowadays.
Explore!
 What are your hobbies? Do you have a hobby that is typically
done by the opposite sex? What do people say about your
"unusual" hobby?
Try it!
 Ask five of your friends about their dream jobs. Does any of

these jobs tend to be associated with men or women? What

do you think about your friends’ dream jobs?
What do you think?
 Is it proper to limit a person’s choices based on his or her
gender? Why or why not?
CULTURAL VARIATIONS
AND SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
(SOCIOECONOMIC CLASS)
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you

should be able to define and
discuss the different
socioeconomic classes that
exist in Philippine society.
What are the different
socioeconomic classes in the
Philippines?
How did these socioeconomic

classes change through time?

Find out the answers in this lesson!
Philippine society can be categorized into
various socioeconomic classes. During
prehistoric times, our ancestors developed
a society where people were assigned with
different social functions. However, as
society changed, differences in societal
functions became wider and more diverse.
Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-
Colonial Period
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards,
the community was called a barangay. It
was headed by a datu or rajah. Our
ancestors were divided into three
different groups−maharlika, timawa,
and alipin.
Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)

first social class

composed of community leaders

(datu) and their families

also called the group of

the maginoo, raha, or gat

 Timawa (Freemen)
 second or “middle” social class
 composed of all freemen living in the

barangay
 consisted of workers, warriors, merchants,
and others who were not under debt bondage
 had their own properties such as houses and
pieces of land to cultivate
Alipin (Slaves)
 third class
 served another person or family as payment for debt

 became slaves when their families lost to a war with

another
 were not bound to their masters for life

 could go back to their previous status as soon as they pay

off their debts, or if they marry a maharlika, who will then

pay for their debt
 had two kinds−aliping saguiguilid and aliping namamahay
 Aliping Namamahay

 had their own properties such as houses or

pieces of land
 often from the timawa class and became
slaves because of debt or as punishment for
a wrongdoing
 could go back to being part of

the timawa class once they pay off their debt

Aliping saguiguilid

did not have the right to own any

property
often came from a family of slaves or
were captives in war
could also be sold or exchanged for
goods or other slaves
Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish
Colonial Period
Upon the coming of the Spaniards,
Philippine society changed and a new
set of socioeconomic classes was
created. During this period, the people
were divided based on their ancestry-
peninsulares, insulares, mestizo,
and indio.
Peninsulares
Spaniards in the Philippines who were
born in Spain
came from the word “peninsula,” which
was in direct reference to the Spanish
peninsula
Insulares
Spaniards who were of Spanish
descent but were born in the
Philippines
came from the word “insular,”

which means "from the islands"

Mestizos
those of mixed ancestry
usually children of Spanish and

Chinese couples or of Spanish and

indio couples
had economic and political power

because of their mixed heritage

Indios
consisted of the natives
the lowest class in society

were stripped of their rights and

freedom
were forced to bow down to Spanish
colonizers
This kind of system lasted for
hundreds of years, until the time when
some insulares and mestizos were
able to gain some form of power. In
the 19th century, the so-called
“middle class” emerged—
the principalia and the ilustrados.
Principalia
consisted of native leaders in the
government and their families
were often educated and served
as gobernadorcillo (town mayor)
or cabeza de
barangay (barangay leader)
Ilustrados
the children of the principalia who
usually studied in Europe
consisted mostly of the popular

artists and scholars of the period,

including Jose Rizal
 Modern Socioeconomic Classes
 Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines
gained independence from Spain. The Americans
introduced democracy and did not impose any form of
socioeconomic class in the country.
 At present, a person’s position in society is based

mainly on his or her family’s economic status. Social

stratification or the division of society based on
occupation, income, wealth, or power is simpler at
present than in the past.
 In 1987, the National Statistical Coordination
Board (NSCB) divided the population into high-
income, middle-income, and low-income
classes.
High-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 200,000 per

month
 the “rich” class that accounts for merely one

percent of the country’s total population

Middle-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 36,000 per

month
 consists of professionals and small-scale

entrepreneurs
Low-income Class
 people earning less than PhP 10,000 per month

 consists of laborers and minimum wage earners

Social Mobility
 Unlike in other societies where persons born into a specific
class have no choice but to die as part of the same class,
people in the Philippines usually have the opportunity to
transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one.
 This process, called social mobility, is:

 the movement of people or families within or between

different levels in society, and
 the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic

class to a higher one possibly through education or

marriage.
 CULTURAL VARIATIONS
AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENCES (ETHNICITY)
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you

should be able to define and
discuss different concepts and
issues regarding ethnicity and
ethnic groups in the Philippines.
 What is ethnicity?
 What is race and how is it related to

ethnicity?
 What are the issues regarding ethnicity?

 What are the ethnic groups in the

Philippines?
Ethnicity and Race

Every society consists of people

from different families, ethnic
groups, and races. This makes
society very diverse and unique.
 Ethnicity
 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called
the ethnic group, who have a common or
shared culture, language, history, religion, and
tradition.
 Here, people are divided into groups based on
different social factors.
 Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and
 Race
 Race refers to a group of people that shares the same
physical attributes, such as skin color, height, and facial
features.
 People are grouped into different races based on their
physical appearance.
 Human beings are classified into three major
races−Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.
 These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the
shape of the face and eyes, texture of the hair, and other
prominent physical features.
 Two people belonging to the same race may be
part of different ethnic groups. For example,
Asians belong to the Mongoloid race but
consists of different ethnic groups like the
Japanese, the Chinese, and the Malays. They
all share the same physical features but have
different cultures, histories, and languages.
Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines
 There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in
the Philippines, which are based on the language each group
uses.
 There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:

- Ilokano, - Kapampangan,
- Pangasinense, - Tagalog,
- Bikolano, - Ilonggo,
- Cebuano, and - Waray.
 Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are
the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan,
and Zamboangueño.
There are also indigenous groups in the

country that may belong to the same
ethnolingguistic groups, but have different
cultures or traditions. Some of them are
the Mangyans of Mindoro, the Igorots of the
Mountain Province, and the Moros of
Mindanao.
 Issues About Race and Ethnicity

 Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people

based on their social affinities or physical similarities.
However, differences in ethnicity and race make some
people believe that one ethnic group is superior than
others. This belief creates discrimination and
prejudice against people from minorities who are
perceived to be of “inferior” ethnicity or race.
There are different types of discrimination against
one’s ethnicity or race.
 Racism

 Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on

one’s race.
 In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasoids)

discriminated black Americans (Negroids) who

were descendants of immigrants from African
countries.
 Ethnocentrism
 Ethnocentrism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s
culture.
 Recently, Muslim extremists discriminate Christians and non-
Muslims in Muslim countries because of their religion.
 In the Philippines, Muslims experience prejudice and

discrimination in Christian-dominated regions like Metro Manila.

Because of the ongoing conflict in Mindanao between the
government and Islamic militants, Christians tend to think that all
Muslims are terrorists.
 On the other hand, some Christians and ethnic groups are
discriminated and prejudiced against in Muslim-dominated areas.
Discrimination against one’s race or culture may cause
crimes against it.
 Genocide
 Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from
the same race, ethnic group, religion, or nation.
 It is an extreme action against people from another

ethnicity or race.
 The Holocaust during the Waorld War II, executed by
the Nazis of Germany led by Adolf Hitler, killed millions
of Jews all over Europe.
 Ethnic cleansing
 Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or
forced migration of an ethnic group to banish
them from a certain area or territory.
 This happens in certain areas in Africa.
CULTURAL VARIATION
AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENCES
(RELIGION)
 Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain religion as a form of cultural variation,

 describe the diversity of religions in the world

and in the Philippines, and

 analyze issues regarding religion in the world

and in the Philippines.

How is cultural variation explained in terms
of religion?
What are the existing religions in the world
and in the Philippines?
What are the issues surrounding differences
in religion?
 Religion as a Cultural Variation
 We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.
 Cultural variation or differences take many forms within
and among societies, one of which is religion.
 Religion can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors
that relate to a group of people's belief in a god or a group
of gods.
 Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of society's
culture.
 In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief,
but one's way of life.
 Variety of Religion
 There are many religions around the world.
 Among the major religions in the world

are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, and Buddhism.

 Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and
practices that must be followed by its believers.
 In a society, several religions may exist, and since religion
affects an individual’s way of life, we can observe cultural
variations in the form of different religions.
Religion in the Philippines
 The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the
government does not prescribe a specific set of activities or laws
based on religion. A citizen's right to choose his or her own religion
is protected by the Philippine Constitution.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with
a certain portion of the population practicing Islam, particularly in
the southern part of the country.
 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small
number of inhabitants in the archipelago.
 Different religions are being practiced in Philippine society today.

This variation in religion is a product of the evolution of Philippine

society across time.
Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form
of Religion
 Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through
different religions in the world, more so in Philippine
society.
 For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God,
Hindus believe in many gods, and Buddhists do not.
 The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion
influence the behavior of its followers and their
interaction with other members of society.
 Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion
 Because people have different religions, issues and
conflicts between religious groups or denominations
cannot be prevented.
Problems or Conflicts
 Since differences in religion do not only mean
worshipping different gods, conflicts sometimes arise
between believers.
 Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are
being marginalized, while some feel like those following
other religions are taking advantage of their number.
 It may be easy to be swayed by religious
differences and start a conflict. A believer or
follower of a particular religion may offend a
follower of another religion if he or she
imposes his or her religious beliefs or
practices.
 In history, bloody wars happened because of

religious differences, and unfortunately,

conflicts continue until now due to varying
religions.
Solutions or Actions
 To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for
example, started recognizing some of the special
days celebrated by different religions.
 Employees are not required to work during Holy

Week, when Catholics commemorate the suffering

and death of Jesus Christ.
 The start and end of the Ramadan are also

considered holidays, just like when the Chinese

celebrate the start of their new year.
 This way, the government allows followers of
different religions to attend to their religious
obligations without work getting in the way.
 To those conflicts brought about by

differences in religion, the key word is

respect. This entails a conscious effort to
acquire cultural knowledge and understand
which this course is mainly about.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS AND
SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
(EXCEPTIONALITY/NON-
EXCEPTIONALITY)
 Objectives
 At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 describe exceptionality and non-exceptionality as a form of
social category or one’s source of identity,
 explain the characteristics that make a person
“exceptional,”
 discuss the challenges and problems affecting exceptional
people, and
 suggest solutions to the problems.

 What makes a person exceptional?

Exceptionality and the
Exceptional People
 People have different characteristics, needs, desires,
lifestyles, and challenges. However, there are people who,
from one reason or another, are described or categorized
by the society as exceptional.
 What do the words "gifted," "disabled," "challenged," or
"different" mean to you? How does society influence your
knowledge and attitudes toward people with such labels
and differences?
Exceptionality
 a quality or a characteristic of a person that
makes him or her different from an established
norm in a society
 various physical and mental interference or
problems that affect a person and which makes
it difficult for him or her to function properly in
society
Exceptional People
 differ from societal and community standards of
normalcy
 have learning or behavioral problems and

physical and sensory disabilities

 are intellectually gifted

 The characteristics that make a person exceptional

may have been acquired from birth, through a medical
condition, or through an accident.
Exceptional People: Challenges and Problems
 Exceptional people, the disabled, or the intellectually
gifted, encounter challenges and issues in dealing with
other members of the society.
 Here are some common problems and challenges that
exceptional people experience.
 Overcoming Challenges and
Problems
 In the Philippines, despite the passage of Republic Act 7277 or
the Magna Carta for People with Disabilities (PWDs) in 1991,
there are still significant barriers that keep exceptional people
from fully participating in society−including the stigma
surrounding disability and society’s poor understanding of the
abilities and aspirations of exceptional people. However, the
government, private sectors, media, and some concerned
groups have been working together to solve these existing
problems.
The picture below shows the International Symbol of
Access (ISA). It is found in locations or spots that are
designated for all persons with disabilities.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS
AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENCES
(NATIONALITY)
 Objectives
 At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define nationality as a concept in cultural variation and social differences,
 explain different concepts regarding nationality, and
 discuss issues regarding nationality and statelessness.
 What is nationality and how is it related to nation and citizenship?
 What does Philippine law say about Filipino nationality?
 How does the United Nations Organization resolve issues regarding the
right to have a nationality?
 What is statelessness? What happens to a stateless person?
 Nation, Nationality, and Citizenship
 The line of distinction between the terms
"nation" and "nationality" is quite thin. Most
of the time, "nationality" and "citizenship" are
used interchangeably. However, it is
important to note that these words do not
mean the same thing and actually pertain to
different concepts.
Nation
 A nation is a large aggregate of people united by common descent,
history, culture, language, and economic life through inhabiting a
particular country or territory.
Example:
 The United Kingdom is a country inhabited mainly by people of four

nations: English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh.

 A nation emphasizes a particular group of people, and
a country emphasizes the physical dimensions and boundaries of a
geographical area. On the other hand, a state is a self-governing
legal and political entity.
Nationality
 It is a person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation or
country.
 It can be acquired by an individual from the country where he or she
was born (jus soli).
 It can be acquired by an individual through his or her parents (jus
sanguinis)
 An individual is a national of a particular country by birth.
Nationality is acquired through inheritance from his or her parents.
 People with the same nationality often share the same language,
culture, territory, and in some cases, ancestry. They share the same
rights and are protected by the same laws.
Citizenship
 It is a person’s legal and political status in a city or
state, which means that an individual has been
registered with the government in some country.
 An individual becomes a citizen of a country only

when he or she is accepted into that country’s

political framework through legal terms.
 Examples:
• An individual born in the Philippines has a Filipino
nationality. He may, however, apply for citizenship in
another country, should he wish to (e.g. a Filipino national
applying for citizenship in Mexico).
• Some people from European Union member countries may
have European citizenships that are different from their
nationalities (e.g. an Italian national who is registered as a
German citizen).
• No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can
have a different citizenship.
Filipino Nationality
 The Philippine Nationality Law is based on the principles
of jus sanguinis or "right of blood." Therefore, anyone with a
parent who is a citizen or national of the Republic of the
Philippines can acquire Philippine citizenship. This is the
primary method of acquiring citizenship.
 For people born in the Philippines to non-Filipino parents,

the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000 (R.A.

9139)provides an avenue for administrative naturalization.
Issues Regarding Nationality and Statelessness

 What are some issues concerning nationality and

statelessness?
 Right to a Nationality

 Every person has a right to a nationality.

 The right to a nationality is a fundamental human right. It is

an individual’s right to acquire, change, or retain his or her

nationality. Thus, a country’s law cannot deprive a person
the right to gain a nationality, in case he or she loses it.
Statelessness
 People who do not have a nationality are considered as stateless
people.
 According to Article 1 of the 1954 Convention relating to the Status
of Stateless Persons of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), "a stateless person is someone who is not
considered as a national by any State under the operation of its
law."
 Most stateless people are considered "refugees," while others lose
their nationalities due to war or conflict, or if their country is
annexed by another country and loses its sovereignty.
 Case Study: Statelessness in Sabah
 Most Filipinos living in Sabah, Malaysia are considered "stateless."
Thus, they are not recognized as people with a nationality. They do
not belong to any country or nation.
 Since Sabah is a contested territory between Malaysia and the

Philippines, the people in Sabah experience problems in securing

their nationalities. Filipinos from nearby Sulu and Tawi-tawi, even
those who are born in Sabah, are not recognized by the Malaysian
government as Malaysians. They are also denied of their Filipino
nationality since they are not properly registered in the Philippines.
As a result, they do not enjoy the rights and privileges that citizens
of either country enjoy.
 This concern is also true in areas and territories
under war and conflict.
 The United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) handles all issues regarding
refugees and stateless people. The role of UNHCR
is to identify stateless people and protect their
rights, as well as prevent statelessness from
happening all over the world. They also aid
stateless people in acquiring new citizenship in
other countries.