S11/12PS-IIIa-2

How the elements found in

the universe were formed
give evidence for and describe the formation of
heavier elements during star formation and evolution

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

The most common types
of nuclear reactions
ALPHA DECAY : loss of an alpha particle ()
e.g. alpha decay of polonium – 210

BETA DECAY : loss of a beta particle ()

e.g. beta decay of carbon – 14

GAMMA RADIATION : emission of a gamma ray ()

e.g. gamma radiation in alpha decay of uranium - 238
(alpha decay)
(gamma radiation)

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

The most common types
of nuclear reactions
POSITRON EMISSION: conversion of a proton in a nucleus
into a neutron, along which the release of a positron ()
e.g. positron emission of oxygen - 15

ELECTRON CAPTURE : drawing of an electron

() into an atom’s nucleus
e.g. electron capture of mercury - 201

BOMBARDMENT OF ALPHA PARTICLE : addition of alpha particle

e.g. bombardment of beryllium with an alpha particle
+
Other subatomic particles involved in nuclear reactions are the proton () and the neutron ()

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

Stellar Formation and
Evolution
• The universe continuously expanded for several years
and the cloud of H and He gases condensed to form a
stars, including the sun
• Over millions of years, the stars made of H became hotter
and denser
• During this stellar evolution, nuclear reactions
continued, which produced elements heavier than lithium
• The light elements combined to form atoms of C, Ne, O,
Si, and Fe

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

Stellar Formation and
Evolution
• Starting from a small, young, yellow star, successive
nuclear reactions occurred until it became a giant red star
• The reaction involved in the formation of each new
element happened in regions or layers so called fusion
shells
• As more elements were produced, new layers added up to
the size of the star until it became a red giant
• Stars are described to have an “onion skin structure” as
they evolved and produced new elements

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

 Cross-section of the
onion skin structure of
a red giant star
showing the
distribution of the first
few elements formed
after the big bang.
Layering
increases the density
of the star

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

• Younger yellow stars made up of H were fueled by the
energy released from the fusion of H nuclei to form He
• In the outer layer of a yellow star, the burning of hydrogen
through nuclear fusion produced He
• Once enough was produced, these nuclei became
concentrated at the core of the star, making the temp. hotter
at the region.
• H fusion continued, but in a shell surrounding the He core
• The reactions in the H fusion shell are shown as follows:

+
+
+

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

• When the core reached the temp. enough for He
fusion to occur, He burning began
• The outer temp. then became colder than the core,
which caused the star to become red
•
• formed from He fusion
• Another nucleus fused with forming
• These reactions happened in the He fusion shell,
beneath the H fusion shell

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

• The C nuclei produced became more concentrated
at the center of the star, as He was earlier
• This produced a C core, that when it reached a
certain temp. to allow C fusion, it produce Ne
within the C fusion shell
• Nuclear reactions that occurred in this shell include
the following:

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

• Ne then became concentrated at the core, then
underwent fusion to produce O

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

• When O became concentrated at the core,
nuclear fusion continued, producing Si

PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)

• The fusion of produced radioactive which then
decayed to iron.
• More nuclear fusions happened between different
nuclei to form the other elements. However, the
• production of elements stopped when iron was
formed. Since Fe is the most stable nuclei, it
cannot undergo nuclear fusion
• In order to produce elements heavier than Fe,
energy input is necessary
PHYSICAL SCIENCE – Bryan DC. Gabriel (SHS-JJRMHS)
Stellar Explosion

• As the red giant star exhausted the nuclear

fuel of light elements, its core started to
collapse that eventually led to the explosion
of the star.
• This violent explosion called supernova
released a huge amount of nuclear energy and
produced other elements heavier than iron.
Processes involve in
Stellar Explosion
• Neutron Capture is a process occurred as a seed
nucleus captured neurons, forming a heavier isotope of
the element that was either stable or radioactive.
• It can be either as fast as a fraction of a second (rapid
process or r-process) or as low as a few million years
(slow process or s-process).
• Radioactive decay
Neutron Capture

• Stable isotopes continued to capture neutrons and

formed other heavier isotopes of the seed nuclei.
• Unstable or radioactive isotopes underwent beta deacy,
producing an isotope of a new element.
Slow process or
s-process
• Formation of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) nuclei from a
nickel (Ni) nucleus.
Neutron capture

Beta decay of unstable

Neutron capture

Beta decay of unstable

Rapid process or
r-process
• Formation of cobalt(Co) from iron (Fe)

Series of Neutron capture

of Fe

Beta decay of unstable