Ch3 - Learning and HRD

Learning and HRD
Chapter 3
CH-3 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 1

Learning Objectives - 1
• Define learning and list at least three learning principles
• Describe the three broad categories of issues that
should be considered to maximize learning
• Identify and discuss several personal characteristics
(such as ability, personality) that affect trainee learning
• Identify and discuss the training design issues that can
be used to maximize learning
• Identify and discuss the factors that affect the transfer of
training, and how these can be used to maximize
learning

Learning Objectives – 2
• Discuss how various individual differences affect
the learning process
• Discuss the value of adult learning theory to
HRD interventions
• Describe the role that learning styles, learning
strategies, and perceptual preferences play in
learning
• Cite recent perspectives from instructional and
cognitive psychology that have importance for
HRD

True or False – 1
• For learning to take place, the most important
variable to consider is whether the individual
learner has sufficient ability to learn what is
being taught
• In general, people learn best and remember the
most when they can spread out the time spent
learning new material
• Learning something to the point of “over-
learning” is generally a waste of time, and
should be avoided

True or False – 2
• If training has been effective, then it really
doesn’t matter whether there is support in
the work environment or not
• Trainers should always seek to match the
type of training delivery methods to the
characteristics of the individuals being
trained
• Adult learners typically respond best to a
lecture-style approach to training
Learning and Instruction
• Learning:
– a relatively permanent change in behavior,
cognition, or affect that occurs as a result of
one’s interaction with the environment

Focus of Learning
• Change
– By acquiring something new
– By modifying something that already exists
• Long-lasting
• Behavior, cognitions, affect
– Any combination of the three
• Results from interaction with the
environment
Search for Basic Learning
Principles
• Association
– Process by which two cognitions become
paired so that thinking of one causes thinking
of the other

Principles Influencing
Association Learning
• Contiguity – Objects that are learned to
together tend to be associates with each
other
– Picture of a cat and German word Katze
• Law of Effect – A behavior followed by a
pleasurable consequence is likely to be
repeated
• Practice – Repetition strengths the
association
Gestalt
• Learning occurs not through trial and error
or by association
• It occurs suddenly through insight
– An “epiphany”
– Aha!
• Not very effective for HRD

Limits of Learning Principles
• Robert Gagne
• Argued that training could be improved by
– Task Analysis
• Subdividing each task into component tasks
– Component Task Achievement
• Mastering each component task to learn entire
task
– Task Sequencing
• Learning components should be in appropriate
sequence

Instructional Psychology
• Four components
– Describe learning goal to be obtained
– Analyze initial state of learner
• What is capacity before learning starts
– Identify conditions that allow learner to achieve
competence
• Instructional techniques, procedures, materials
– Assess and Monitor learning to measure progress
and need for alternative techniques

Cognitive Psychology
• Adopting the language, methods and models
that portray humans as information processors
• Cognitive Architecture
– A fixed system of mechanisms that underlies and
produces cognitive behavior
– Symbolic Architectures
• Rely heavily upon processing information as symbols and
language
– Connectionist Architectures
• Focused on way that information is processed

Maximizing Learning
• Three primary areas
– Trainee characteristics
– Training design
– Transfer of training

Trainee Characteristics
• Trainability
• Motivation
• Ability
• Perception of the work environment
• Personality and attitudes

Training Design
• Conditions of practice • Retention of what is
– Active practice learned
– Massed versus – Meaningfulness of
spaced practice material
sessions – Degree of original
– Whole versus part learning
learning – Interference
– Over-learning
– Knowledge of results
(feedback)
– Task sequencing

Transfer of Training
• Identical elements
• General principles
• Stimulus variability
• Support in the work environment
• Opportunity to perform
• Transfer-of-training climate

Trainee Characteristics
• Trainability
– f (motivation x ability x perceptions of work
environment)

Pre-training Motivation
• Way trainee perceive training affects levels
of learning, perceptions of efficacy,
anxiety, and perceptions of fairness
• Way individuals view own ability affects
anxiety level, efficacy perceptions and the
learning of factual knowledge
• Experiencing negative events on job can
increase trainee’s motivation to learn and
their performance
Pre-training Motivation – 2
• Other factors:
– Involved in decisions to train
– Perception that training will result in benefits
– Perceptions of support for training
– Lack of obstacles in applying training on the
job

Selection of Trainees
• Cognitive ability over prior job knowledge
• Trainability testing
– Testing motivation and relevant abilities
• Train, then select
– Use training as opportunity to screen
applicants/trainees for retention and further
training

Personality and Attitudes
• Personality
– The stable set of personal characteristics that
account for consistent patterns of behavior
• Traits for training
– Locus of control
– Need for achievement
– Activity
– Independence
– Sociability

Training Design
• Involves adapting the learning
environment to maximize learning
• Issues include
– the conditions of practice that influence
learning
– the factors that impact retention of what is
learned

Conditions of Practice
• Active Practice
– Repeatedly perform task or use knowledge learned
– Massed versus spaced practice sessions
• Massed – All at once (“cramming”)
• Spaced – Segments separated over time
– Whole versus part learning
• Whole – Practice entire task
• Part – Practices segments of task

Overlearning
• Practice beyond the point at which material or
task is mastered
• Rationale for over-learning
– May improve performance under different situations
– Additional proactive when opportunity for same not
available on the job
– Makes what is learned “automatic” in stressful or
emergency situations
• Effective but increases time and expense of
training
Feedback in Training
• Provides objective information regarding the
adequacy of one’s performance
• Can come from observers, the performer, or the
task itself
• Informational – when it helps determine tasks
are done correctly
• Motivational – when it indicated valued
outcomes

Retention of What is Learned
• Issues influencing retention
– Meaningfulness of material
• More meaningful, easier to learn and remember
– Degree of original learning
• More effectively learned, more is retained
– Interference
• Knowledge gained before training can inhibit retention
• Knowledge gained after training may inhibit retention
• Both require learner to respond differently in the same
general situation do to changed equipment, changed
procedures, etc

Transfer of Training
• The transfer of new knowledge from the training
scenario into the workplace
• Positive Transfer – Job performance improves
because of training
• Negative Transfer – Job performance is worse
because of training

Near and Far Transfer
• Near Transfer
– Ability to directly apply on the job what has been
learned in training, with little adjustment or
modification
• Far Transfer
– Expanding on what has been learned in new and
creative ways

Baldwin & Ford’s (1988) Transfer of
Fig. 3-1
Training Model Conditions
Training Inputs Training Outputs of Transfer
Trainee
characteristics
4
Ability
Personality
Motivation
2
Training design
Principles of Learning Generalization
learning and and
1 6
Sequencing retention maintenance
Training content
3
Work
environment
Support
Opportunity
to use 5
SOURCE: Baldwin, T. T. & Ford, J. K. (1988). “Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research”.
Personnel Psychology, 41, 65. Reprinted by permission.

Identical Elements
• The more similar the training and the
performance situations, the better the transfer
• Physical Fidelity
– extent to which the conditions of the training program, such as
equipment, tasks, and surroundings, are the same as in the
performance situation
• Psychological Fidelity
– extent to which trainees attach similar meanings to both the
training and performance situations

General Transfer Theories
• General Principles Theory

– Learning the fundamental elements of a task will
ensure transfer from training
• Stimulus Variability
– Transfer can be enhanced when training contains a
variety of stimuli
• Support in the Work Environment
– extent to which trainees perceive support for using
newly learned behavior or knowledge on the job

Training Support
• Supervisory support
– Encouragement to attend training, goal
setting, reinforcement, and behavior modeling
have all been shown to increase transfer
• Organizational Support
– presence of both transfer of training climate
and a continuous learning work environment
affected behavior after training

The Opportunity to Perform
• The number-one reason cited for low
transfer (listed by over 64 percent of
trainees!) was “lack of opportunity to apply
on the job.”

Increasing Transfer to the Job
Table 3-2
• Develop (and follow) clearly stated learning objectives for the

training
• Maximize the similarity between the training situation and the job
situation
• Provide ample opportunity during training to practice the task
• Use a variety of situations and examples, including both positive and
negative models of the intended behavior
• Identify and label important features of a task
• Make sure trainees understand general principles
• Provide support back in the work environment, including clear goals,
checklists, measurement, feedback, and rewards for using the new
behaviors on the job
• Provide ample opportunity to perform what is learned back on the
job

Individual Difference in
Learning
• Rate of progress
– People learn at different rates
• Learning Curve
– Charting individual proficiency against time
– Provide feedback for altering approaches
according to individual needs

Attribute-Treatment
Interaction
• Some methods of training may be better
suited to certain types of people
• Two Variables:
– Cognitive ability
– Motivation

Learning Curves
Proficiency
Fig. 3-2
Trainee 1 Time
Proficiency Proficiency
Trainee 2 Time Trainee 4 Time
Proficiency Proficiency
Trainee 3 Time Trainee 5 Time

Cognitive Resource Allocation
Theory - 1
• Predicts that
– Individuals with higher levels of cognitive ability will
perform better than those with lower levels of
cognitive ability during the declarative knowledge
phase
– Motivational efforts will reduce performance during
the declarative knowledge phase
– Using attentional resources for motivation during the
declarative Knowledge phase
– Knowledge phase will have less of an impact on high-
cognitive-ability individuals
Cognitive Resource Allocation
Theory - 2
– Any advantages because of higher cognitive
ability, higher motivation or increased use of
attentional resources will decrease over time

Adult Learning Theory
• Pedagogy
– Used for educating children and teens
through high school
• Andragogy
– Adult-oriented approach to learning

Child versus Adult Learning
• Adults are more self-directed
• Adults have acquired a large amount of
knowledge and experience that can be tapped
as a resource for learning
• Adults show a greater readiness to learn tasks
that are relevant to the roles they have assumed
in life
• Adults are motivated to learn in order to solve
problems or address needs, and they expect to
immediately apply what they learn to these
problems and needs

Pedagogy versus Andragogy - 1
Table 3-3
Characteristic Pedagogy Andragogy

Structure Based on aging Flexible, open, broad
process Responsive
Rigid format Interdisciplinary
Subject/curriculum- Developmental
centered
Rules, procedures,
laws

Table 3-3
Characteristics Pedagogy Andragogy

Atmosphere Authority-oriented Relaxed, trusting,
Formal, mutually
Low trust Respectful
Competitive Informal,
Win-lose Warm
Collaborative,
supportive
Win-win

Pedagogy versus Andragogy -3
Table 3-3
Characteritic Pedagogy Andragogy
Leadership Teacher dominant Innovative, creative

High task, High task, high
low relationship relationship
Controlling Interdependent
Does not value mature
experience Relationship
Assumes student Mentoring,
immaturity Modeling
and dependency Experiential
Low risk

Table 3-3

Planning Administration and Administration, faculty,
teacher and students
Emphasizes rationale, Mutual assessment
legal, mechanisms Collaborative needs
Policies, plans, assessment
and decisions Mutual negotiation
Highly political Problem centered

Table 3-3

Motivation External rewards and Internal incentives
punishments (curiosity)
Self-directed
Learning contracts

Table 3-3

Communication One-way downward Two-way
Transmittal techniques Mutually
Feelings repressed Respectful
Feelings expressed
Supportive

Table 3-3

Evaluation Teacher Norm- Criterion-based
Referenced (curve) Objective and
Grades Subjective subjective
Jointly chosen
standards by students,
peers, and teachers

Gerontology
• The scientific study of old age and aging

Traditional versus Nontraditional
Learners - 1
Table 3-4
Traditional Nontraditional
•Need motivation; not always • Highly motivated; want to
sure why they are in training learn
•Raise few questions; often •Raise many questions in class

have little real-world experience and seek opportunities to
to connect to the training analyze training content in
content terms of own experiences;
•Need to connect class
materials to real-world
experiences.
SOURCE: Adapted from Caudron, S. (2000). “Learners speak out”. Training and Development, 54(4), 52–58. Adapted
by permission. Copyright © April 2000 from Training & Development by Caudron, S. Adapted with permission of
American Society for Training & Development.

Learners - 2
Table 3-4
•Developed a tolerance for •Have a low tolerance for
bureaucracy bureaucracy
•Resist participation; expect to be •Want to participate. Dislike being
told what to do and how to do it talked at; value discussions and
projects

Learners - 3
Table 3-4
•More future-oriented. Don’t •Concerned with immediate
expect to immediately apply what problems and their solutions
they learn in training
•Major focus on good grades •Primarily interested in content and

its relevance to career and
personal life

Table 3-4
Learners - 4
•Tend to be idealistic •Tend to be practical
• Have a restricted worldview •Have considerable knowledge to
bring to training
•Want to know “the answer,” and •Look at problems as having
tend to see things one way several possible alternatives worth
evaluating

Learners - 5
Table 3-4
•Impatient; want things to happen •Have patience with the world;
“overnight” understand that change takes time
•Likely to accept information that •Can and will verify information
they are given given in training

Table 3-4
Learners - 6
• Have few specific expectations •Often have preconceived
expectations of training that the
instructor should try to identify if
possible
•If the training isn’t what
participants expected, they are
likely to consider it to be a failure

Dimensions For Assessing
Trainees - 1
• Instrumentality –
– Degree to which the trainee is concerned with the
immediate applicability of the concepts and skills
being taught
• Skepticism –
– Degree to which the trainee exhibits a questioning
attitude and demands logic, evidence, and examples
• Resistance to Change –
– Degree to which the trainee fears the process
SOURCE: From Newstrom, J. W. (1991). One size does not fit all. Training and Development Journal, 45(6), 46.
Adapted by permission. Copyright © June 1991 from Training & Development by Newstrom, J. W., & Lengnick-Hall,
M. L. Adapted with permission of American Society for Training & Development.

Trainees – 2
• Attention Span
– Length of time the trainee can focus attention before substantial
attentiveness is diminished
• Expectation Level
– Level of quality (process) and quantity (content) that the trainee requires
from the trainer or the training
• Dominant Needs
– Range of intrinsic and extrinsic individual needs that currently drive the
trainee

Trainees – 3
• Absorption Level
– Pace at which the trainee expects and can
accept new information
• Topical Interest
– Degree to which the trainee can be expected
to have personal (job-relevant) interest in the
topic

Trainees – 4
• Self-confidence
– Degree of trainee’s independence and positive self-
regard, thus requiring high or low levels of feedback,
reinforcement, and success experiences
• Locus of control
– Degree to which the trainee perceives that training
can be implemented successfully back on the job with
or without organizational support

Five Principles of Adult Training – 1
• Older workers can and do develop

• Supervisions cannot exclude older
workers
• Effective training needs
– Motivation, structure, familiarity, organization
& time

Five Principles of Adult Training – 2
• The organizational climate must reward

entry into training and transfer of skills
back to the job
• Training must be considered within an
integrated career perspective

Kolb’s Learning Styles
• A learning style represents how individual
choices made during the learning process
affect what information is selected and
how it is processed
• A mode of learning is the individual’s
orientation toward gathering and
processing information during learning

Kolb’s Basic Modes – 1
• Concrete Experience (CE)
– An intuitive preference for learning through
direct experience, emphasizing interpersonal
relations and feeling as opposed to thinking
• Abstract Conceptualization (AC)
– A preference for learning by thinking about an
issue in theoretical terms

Kolb’s Basic Modes – 2
• Reflective Observation (RO)
– A preference to learn by watching and
examining different points of view to achieve
an understanding
• Active Experimentation (AE)
– A preference for learning something by
actually doing it and judging its practical value

Kolb’s Four Styles – 1
• Divergent
– A combination of concrete experience and
reflective observation (feeling and watching),
emphasizing imagination, an awareness of
values, and the ability to generate alternative
courses of action

• Assimilation
– A combination of abstract conceptualization
and reflective observation (thinking and
watching) that stresses inductive reasoning,
the integration of disparate observations into
an explanation, and the creation of theoretical
models

• Convergent
– A combination of abstract conceptualization
and active experimentation (thinking and
doing), with a focus on problem solving,
decision making, and the practical application
of ideas

• Accommodative
– A combination of concrete experience and
active experimentation (feeling and doing),
this style is usually demonstrated by
accomplishment, executing plans, and
involvement in new experiences

Kolb’s Learning Style
Inventory
• LSI assesses an individual’s orientation
toward the four modes of the learning
process (CE, RO, AC, and AE)
• Scores also reflect the individual’s
tendencies toward abstractness over
concreteness and action over reflection

Learning Strategies
• LS represent the “behavior and thoughts a
learner engages in during learning”
• Techniques used to rehearse, elaborate,
organize, and/or comprehend new
material as well as to influence self-
motivation and feelings

Categories of Learning
Strategies – 1
• Rehearsal strategies
– (e.g., repeating items in a list; underlining text in an
article; copying notes)
• Elaboration strategies
– (e.g., forming a mental image; taking notes,
paraphrasing, or summarizing new material)
• Organizational strategies
– (e.g., grouping or ordering information to be learned;
outlining an article; creating a hierarchy of material)

Categories of Learning
Strategies – 2
• Comprehension monitoring strategies
– (e.g., self-questioning)
• Affective strategies
– (increasing alertness; relaxation; finding ways
to reduce test anxiety)

Perceptual Preferences
• Print (reading and writing)
• Visual (such as graphs and charts)
• Aural (auditory, i.e., listening)
• Interactive (discussing, asking questions)
• Tactile/manipulative (hands-on approaches,
such as touching)
• Kinesthetic/psychomotor (role playing, physical
activities)
• Olfactory (association of ideas with smell or
taste)
Recent Developments
• The ACT*/ACT-R Approach
– learning process is the same regardless of the
material being learned
– focuses on the changes that occur as a
learner proceeds from knowing what to do
(called declarative knowledge) to knowing
how to do it (procedural knowledge)

Learning to Regulate One’s Own
Behavior
• Experts develop self-regulation and control
strategies through experience
• They can monitor their performance by
– quickly checking their work,
– accurately judging how difficult a problem is,
– Allocating their time,
– assessing progress, and
– predicting the results of their efforts

Expert and Exceptional
Performance
• Expert performance
– consistently superior performance on a specified set
of representative tasks for a domain
• Exceptional abilities and performance are
acquired
– primarily under optimal environmental conditions
– acquired through deliberate practice
– requires sustaining a very high level of motivation

Deliberate Practice – 1
• Leads to anatomical and physiological
adaptations that contribute to high levels
of performance
• Maximum practice time that a person can
tolerate is four 1-hour sessions per day,
separated by periods of rest
• Expert performance is facilitated by
planning, reasoning, and anticipation

Deliberate Practice – 2
• Experts are generally expert in a limited
performance domain
• The age at which an individual can attain
peak performance levels varies based on
the domain of expertise

Gagné’s Theory of Instruction
• Focuses on the kinds of things people
learn and how they learn them
• Two main components of the theory
– taxonomy of learning outcomes (what is
being learned)
– techniques needed to teach them

Gagné’s Five Categories
• Each requires a different set of conditions
for maximizing learning, retention, and
transfer each of which requires a different
set of conditions for maximizing learning,
retention, and transfer

Verbal Information, or
Declarative Knowledge
• Involves the ability to state or declare
something, such as a fact or an idea
• Reciting the Bill of Rights or the provisions
of the Americans with Disabilities Act are
examples of verbal information

Intellectual Skills
• Sometimes called procedural knowledge,
are the rules, concepts, and procedures
that we follow to accomplish tasks
• Intellectual skills may be simple or
complex
• English grammar is an example of an
intellectual skill

Cognitive Strategies
(Strategic Knowledge)
• The skills used to control learning,
thinking, and remembering
• Cognitive strategies allow us to determine
what procedural knowledge and verbal
information we need to perform a task
• For example, an IRS representative uses
a cognitive strategy when selecting the
auditing approach to take for a particular
tax audit
Attitudes
• Internal states of mind that can influence
which of several behaviors we may
choose
• Attitudes are often highly resistant to
change

Motor Skills
• Involve using our bodies to manipulate
something
• Writing, icing a cake, and balancing a tray
of dishes are examples of motor skills.
• Motor skills are learned by practicing the
movement, and in doing so the quality of
the movement should improve

Importance of Categories
• According to Gagné, these five categories are
important because they differ:
– First, as human performances
– Second, because the requirements for their learning
are different despite the pervasiveness of such
general conditions as contiguity and reinforcement
– Third because the effects of learning, the continued
learning, appear also to differ from each other
– Successful performance on any given task requires
learning in one or more of these five categories

Instructional Events and Conditions of
Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
Instructional Event Verbal Information Intellectual Skill
• Gaining Attention • Introduce stimulus • Variations in
change sensory mode (same
• Informing learner of • Indicate what kind of for all)
objective verbal question to be • Provide description
answered and example of the
expected performance
SOURCE: From Principles of Instructional Design 4th edition by GAGNE/WAGER. © 1992. Reprinted with permission
of Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning: permissionrequests@cengage.com. Fax 800 730-2215.

Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
• Stimulating recall of • Stimulate recall of • Provide description
prerequisites context of organized and example of the
• Presenting the information expected performance
stimulus information • Present information • Present examples of
in propositional form relevant rules and
concepts

Table 3-6 Learning
Type of Capability
• Provide learning • Provide verbal linjs • Provide verbal cues
guidance to a larger meaningful for proper combining/
context sequencing of rules of
• Eliciting the • Ask for information concepts
performance in learner’s own words • Ask learner to apply
(paraphrase) rules or concepts to
new examples

Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
• Providing feedback • Confirm the • Confirm the
correctness of correctness of rule or
statement of concept application
information
• Assessing • Learner demonstrate

performance • Learner restates application of rules or
information in concepts
paraphrased form

Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
• Enhancing retention • Provide verbal links • Provide spaced
and transfer of to additional areas of reviews including a
information information variety of examples

Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
Cognitive Strategy Attitude Motor Skill
• Clarify the general • Provide examples of • Provide a
nature of the solution the desired choice of demonstration of
expected action expected
performance
•Stimulate recall of • Stimulate recall of
task strategies and relevant information, • Stimulate recall of
associated intellectual skills, and human sub-routine and
skills model identification part-skills

Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
• Present novel • Present human • Provide external
problems model, demonstrating stimuli for
choice of personal performance,
action including tools or
implements
•Provide prompts and •Provide for

hints to novel observation of model’s • Provide practice with
solutions choice of action, and feedback on
of reinforcement performance
received by model achievement

Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
• Ask for problem • Ask learner to • Ask for execution of
solution indicate choices of performance
action in real or
simulated situations
• Confirm originality of • Provide feedback on
problem solution • Provide direct or degree of accuracy
vicarious and timing of
reinforcement of performance
action choice

Learning
Table 3-6
Type of Capability
• Learner originates a • Learner makes • Learner executes
novel solution desired choice of performance of total
personal action in real skill
or simulated situation
• Provide occasions • Provide additional • Learner continues
for a variety of novel varied situations for skill practice
solutions selected choice of
action

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• General Principles Theory

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• Develop (and follow) clearly stated learning objectives for the

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Trainee 2 Time Trainee 4 Time

Trainee 3 Time Trainee 5 Time

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Characteristic Pedagogy Andragogy

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Characteristics Pedagogy Andragogy

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Characteritic Pedagogy Andragogy

Leadership Teacher dominant Innovative, creative

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Characteristic Pedagogy Andragogy

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Characteristic Pedagogy Andragogy

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Characteristic Pedagogy Andragogy

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Characteristic Pedagogy Andragogy

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•Raise few questions; often •Raise many questions in class

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•Major focus on good grades •Primarily interested in content and

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