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What is reproduction?

Reproduction is one of the seven life processes.

All living things reproduce.

Humans use sexual reproduction to produce their young.

In order to do this, the two parents (male and female)

have different reproductive systems and organs that
produce different sex cells.

How do bacteria and fungi reproduce?

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Asexual Reproduction
One parent: organism
produces offspring
without fertilization
Uniform offspring:
Because offspring inherit
all of their DNA from one
parent, they are
genetically identical to
each other and to their
parent.

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 Vegetative Propagation: Asexual
 Vegetative Propagation: uniform offspring grow
from a part of a parent plant
 Parent plants sends out runners
 Where the runner touches the ground, roots can
grow
 A new plant is produced even if the runner is
broken apart
 Each new plant is uniform and identical to the
parent.
 Examples: strawberries, potatoes, ivy, crabgrass

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Budding

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 Spore Formation

Fern

Fungi

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Sexual Reproduction
• A type of reproduction in which the genetic
materials from two different cells combine,
producing an offspring.
• The cells that combine are called sex cells
or gametes
– Female – egg or ovum
– Male – sperm
Fertilization: an egg cell and a sperm cell
join/fuse together.
A new cell is formed as a result and is called a
zygote/
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Sexual Reproduction Summary
Male Female Type of Result of Final
Gamete Gamete Union Union Result

Plants pollen ovule pollination single cell multi-cell

(egg) zygote embryo
(in seed)

Animals sperm egg fertilization single cell multi-cell

zygote embryo

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Which is Better?
Asexual Reproduction
• advantages
– does not require special
cells or a lot of energy
– can produce offspring
quickly
– in a stable environment
creates large population
• disadvantages
– limited ability to adapt.
No variation
– Chances of survival of
species is less if
environment changes
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Sexual Reproduction
• advantages
– lots of variation within a
species
– able to live in a variety
of environmental
settings
– able to adapt to changes
in the environment
• disadvantages
– needs time
– produce small
populations due to
longer gestation
periods.
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Past Paper Questions

(a) The table lists some processes used in plant reproduction.

In each box, place a tick ( ) if the process helps to produce offspring with genetic variation, or a cross
( ) if it produces offspring with no genetic variation. The first one has been done for you.
(3)

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Sexual Reproduction in Animals
• involves specialized sex cells called gametes
• the union of a male and female gamete results
in the formation of a zygote that develops into
an embryo and then into a fetus.

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• The embryo undergoes cell division and
differentiation(to form specialized cells)
and forms a fetus after eight weeks of
pregnancy.

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From embryo to fetus
In the earliest stages of development, a human baby is
called an embryo.

After the first eight weeks of pregnancy, a human embryo

is then called a fetus.

At this stage, the fetus has all the main human features.

The fetus continues to

develop and grow inside
its mother’s uterus for a
total of 40 weeks.

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Sex cells – Sperm
In males, the sex cells are called sperm.

tail middle piece head

cell membrane nucleus containing

DNA

Sperm are produced in sex organs called testes.

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Sex cells – Egg or Ovum
In females, the sex cells are called eggs.

nucleus containing cytoplasm

DNA

membrane jelly coat

Eggs are produced in sex organs called ovaries.

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Sperm or egg?

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 Past Paper Questions

(i) Name the gametes produced by males in sexual reproduction.

(1)
.............................................................................................................................................

(ii) Name the gametes produced by females in sexual reproduction.

(1)
.............................................................................................................................................

(iii) Give the term used to describe the fusion of gametes.

(1)
.............................................................................................................................................

(iv) In which organ of a female parent do offspring develop?

(1)
.............................................................................................................................................

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What are chromosomes?
Chromosomes are long strands of genetic information
located in the nuclei of cells.

Chromosomes are most visible

during cell division when they
replicate and look like this…

You will see chromosomes represented both ways.

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Human chromosomes

In human body cells there are a total

of 46 chromosomes.

How many pairs of homologous

chromosomes are there in
human body cells?
23 pairs of chromosomes

You inherit half your chromosomes from

your mother and half from your father.

How many chromosomes do you inherit from each parent?

23 unpaired chromosomes
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What is fertilization?
For a woman to become pregnant fertilization must occur.
Fertilization is the fusing of an egg and a sperm cell. In this
process the sperm’s nucleus will join with the egg’s nucleus.
Females produce an egg approximately every 28 days.
This is called ovulation.
Males continually produce sperm in the testes.
• How do these cells come into close contact with each
other?

• What happens if the egg is not fertilized?

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Sexual intercourse

Millions of sperm cells are

ejaculated into the top of
the vagina.

They enter the uterus through

the cervix, where the sperm
cells may meet an egg.
Now fertilization can occur.

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Menstrual Cycle

If the egg is not fertilized during that time,

the egg disintegrates (breaks down) and menstruation
begins 11-16 days later.

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• Fertilization is the process in which haploid
gametes fuse to form a diploid cell called a
zygote. To ensure that each zygote has the
correct number of chromosomes, only one
sperm can fuse with one egg.

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Haploid and Diploid?

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KEYTERMS
Key Word Definition

Gamete Sex cell (sperm or egg cell) produced in the male or the female reproductive
organs by meiosis
Sexual Reproduction that involves the fusion of 2 gametes to create a genetically
Reproduction unique individual. It is common in animals and plants.
Fertilization Fertilization is the fusion of haploid gametes, egg and sperm, to form the
diploid zygote.
Zygote A zygote is the union of the sperm cell and the egg cell. Also known as a
fertilized ovum, the zygote begins as a single cell but divides rapidly in the
days following fertilization.
Asexual Reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes. The offspring are
Reproduction clones of the parents.
Diploid A cell that has two sets of chromosomes. In humans, almost all cells apart
from the sperm and the egg cells are diploid
Haploid Having one set of chromosomes. As in gametes
Mitosis The cell division of normal body cells that produces 2 identical cells.

Meiosis The cell division that takes place in the reproductive organs to produce
gametes. It produces cells with just 23 chromosomes (one of each pair).

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The male reproductive system

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The female reproductive system

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Male or female?

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Roles of the reproductive system

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Reproduction terms

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Past Paper Question Practice
Plants and animals can reproduce asexually and sexually.
(a) Give an example of a way that plants can reproduce asexually.
(1)
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

(b) Complete the table showing features of sexual reproduction in plants and animals.
(3)

(c) Suggest why the number and size of human male gametes differs from the number
and size of human female gametes.
(2)
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

(Total for question = 6 marks)

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Mark Scheme

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The diagram shows part of the female reproductive system.

(a) (i) Name the structures labelled A, B and C.(3)

(ii) Structure D has two different functions in reproduction.

Describe these two functions.(2)

(b) Structure B produces a hormone that changes the female body at puberty.
(i) Name this hormone.(1)

(ii) Describe the effects of this hormone on the body at puberty.(2)

(Total for question = 9 marks)

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The placenta
How does an embryo receive food and oxygen and how
does it get rid of waste?
An embryo forms a structure called the placenta, which
attaches to the uterus wall.
umbilical
The umbilical cord joins cord
the fetus to the placenta.
In the placenta, food and oxygen
diffuse from the mother’s blood
into the blood of the fetus.
Carbon dioxide and waste
products diffuse from the blood of
the fetus into the mother’s blood.

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How does the placenta work?

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What are the stages of development?

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The stages of pregnancy

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Birth
After 40 weeks of gestation, the baby
is ready to be born. At this point, the
head usually lies just above the cervix.

Birth begins with small contractions

of the uterus wall, which gradually
become stronger and more frequent.

Eventually the contractions cause the amnion to break

and the fluid escapes. The cervix then widens and dilates
as the baby is pushed through the vagina.

After a few minutes, the placenta comes away from the

uterus wall. This is pushed out as the afterbirth.

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Past Paper Questions
The drawing shows a fetus developing in the uterus of a woman.

(i) What is the function of part A?(1)

(ii) What is the function of part B?(1)
(iii) The umbilical cord transports small protein molecules from the
mother to the fetus. These molecules help to provide immunity.
Name these small protein molecules.(1)

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Past Paper Questions

(b) Scientists can take cells from part A and use them to find out if
the fetus has a genetic condition.
(i) How many chromosomes would the scientists find in a normal
body cell from a fetus?(1)

(ii) Complete the table by ticking the box that shows the correct
sex chromosomes the scientists would find in a body cell from a
male fetus.(1)

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What happens during puberty?
Humans are born with a complete set of sex organs.
However, they do not usually become active until
between the ages of 10 and 18.

In males, the testes start to make sperm, and in

females, the ovaries start to release eggs.

This stage of development is called puberty, and is

caused by hormones.

During this important time, many changes take place in

the bodies of young men and women. Secondary
Sexual characteristics develop.

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Menstruation
An important part of puberty for girls is the beginning of
their monthly cycle. This is known as the menstrual cycle.

The menstrual cycle

involves the preparation of
the uterus lining so that it
can receive a fertilized egg.

If an egg is fertilized, it can

implant itself in the prepared
uterus lining.

If the egg is not fertilized, the lining of the uterus

breaks down and is lost from the body. This is called
menstruation, or a period.

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Stages of the menstrual cycle

• Each month during the years between puberty and menopause,

a woman’s body goes through a number of changes to get it
ready for a possible pregnancy. This series of hormone-driven
events is called the menstrual cycle.
• During each menstrual cycle, an egg develops and is released
from the ovaries. The lining of the uterus builds up. If a
pregnancy doesn’t happen, the uterine lining sheds during a
menstrual period. Then the cycle starts again.
• A woman’s menstrual cycle is divided into four phases:
menstrual phase
follicular phase
ovulation phase
luteal phase
• The length of each phase can differ from woman to woman, and
it can change over time.

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1. Menstrual phase
• The menstrual phase is the first stage of the menstrual cycle. It’s also
when you get your period.
• This phase starts when an egg from the previous cycle isn’t fertilized.
Because pregnancy hasn’t taken place, levels of the hormones
estrogen and progesterone drop.
• The thickened lining of your uterus, which would support a pregnancy, is
no longer needed, so it sheds through your vagina. During your period,
you release a combination of blood, mucus, and tissue from your uterus.
• You may have period symptoms like these:
cramps
bloating
mood swings
irritability
tiredness
low back pain
On average, women are in the menstrual phase of their cycle for 3 to 7
days. Some women have longer periods than others.
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2. Follicular phase
The follicular phase starts on the first day of your period (so
there is some overlap with the menstrual phase) and ends when
you ovulate.
It starts when the hypothalamus sends a signal to your pituitary
gland to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This
hormone stimulates your ovaries to produce around 5 to 20
small sacs called follicles. Each follicle contains an immature
egg.
Only the healthiest egg will eventually mature. (On rare
occasions, a woman may have two eggs mature.) The rest of
the follicles will be reabsorbed into your body.
The maturing follicle sets off a surge in estrogen that thickens
the lining of your uterus. This creates a nutrient-rich
environment for an embryo to grow.
The average follicular phase lasts for about 16 days. It can
range from 11 to 27 days, depending on your cycle.
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3. Ovulation
• Rising estrogen levels during the follicular phase trigger
your pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH).
This is what starts the process of ovulation.
• Ovulation is when your ovary releases a mature egg. The
egg travels down the fallopian tube toward the uterus to be
fertilized by sperm.
• The ovulation phase is the only time during your menstrual
cycle when you can get pregnant. You can tell that you’re
ovulating by symptoms like these:
• a slight rise in basal body temperature
• thicker discharge that has the texture of egg whites
• Ovulation happens at around day 14 if you have a 28-day
cycle — right in the middle of your menstrual cycle. It lasts
about 24 hours. After a day, the egg will die or dissolve if it
isn’t fertilized.

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4. Luteal phase
• After the follicle releases its egg, it changes into the corpus
luteum. This structure releases hormones, mainly
progesterone and some estrogen. The rise in hormones keeps
your uterine lining thick and ready for a fertilized egg to
implant.
• If you do get pregnant, your body will produce human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This is the hormone pregnancy
tests detect. It helps maintain the corpus luteum and keeps the
uterine lining thick.
• If you don’t get pregnant, the corpus luteum will shrink away
and be resorbed. This leads to decreased levels of estrogen
and progesterone, which causes the onset of your period. The
uterine lining will shed during your period.
• During this phase, if you don’t get pregnant, you may
experience symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS).

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Periods

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Phases of Menstrual Cycle

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4 important hormones in females.

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Changes in hormone levels

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Multiple-choice quiz

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