Chapter 5

Learning

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 Chapter Preview
• Types of Learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Observational Learning
• Cognitive Factors in Learning
• Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors
in Learning
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 Learning & Behaviorism
• Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavior brought about by experience.
• Behaviorism
• Theory of learning that focuses solely on
observable behaviors
• Discounts importance of mental activity

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 Types of Learning
• Associative Learning & Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning
• Association between two stimuli
• Operant Conditioning
• Association between behavior and consequence
• Observational Learning
• Observing and imitating another’s behavior

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 Classical Conditioning
• A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus
comes to bring about a response after it is
paired with an unconditioned stimulus that
naturally brings about the response.

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Figure 5.2 - Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning

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 Terminology
 Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not
naturally bring about the response of interest.
 Unconditioned Stimulus[UCS]:A stimulus that naturally brings
about a particular response without having been learned.
 Unconditioned response[UCR]:A response that is natural and
needs no training.
 Conditioned stimulus[CS]:A neutral stimulus that has been
paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response
formerly cause only by the unconditioned stimulus.

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 Terminology

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 Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition: Learning of connection between
US & CS
• Generalization
Transferring a learned response from one
stimulus to other similar stimulus.
• Discrimination
• Process of learning to respond only to some
stimuli

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 Classical Conditioning
• Extinction
• Weakening of CR when US is absent

• Spontaneous Recovery
• Recurrence of CR after time delay, without further
conditioning

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 Classical Conditioning in Humans
• Explaining and eliminating fears
• Watson & Rayner: Little Albert
• Counter conditioning
• Breaking habits
• Aversive Conditioning
• Taste aversion learning

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 Identify the US, UR, CS and CR
1. Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment
building, the shower becomes very hot and causes
the person to jump back. Over time, the person
begins to jump back automatically after hearing the
flush, before the water temperature changes.

2. You eat a new food and then get sick because of the
flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and
feel nauseated whenever you smell it

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 Identify the US, UR, CS and CR
3. An individual receives frequent injections of drugs,
which are administered in a small examination room
at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate
but after several trips to the clinic, simply being in a
small room causes an increased heart rate.
4. John watson conducted an experiment with a boy
named Albert in which he paired a white rate with a
loud starling noise. Albert now becomes startled at
the sight of the white rat.

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 Operant Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning
• Based on involuntary responses
• Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
• Explains voluntary behaviors
• B. F. Skinner
• Consequences change probability of behavior

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 Operant Conditioning
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• Positive outcomes strengthen behavior
• Negative outcomes weaken behavior

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 Operant Conditioning
• Shaping
• Rewarding approximations of desired behaviors

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 Principles of Reinforcement
• Reinforcement increases probability of
behavior
• Positive Reinforcement
• Presentation (adding) of something pleasant
• Negative Reinforcement
• Removal (taking away) of something unpleasant

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 Punishment
• Punishment decreases likelihood of behavior
• Positive Punishment
Presentation (adding) of something unpleasant
• Negative Punishment
Removal (taking away) of something pleasant

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 Punishment
Effective punishment
• Should occur as soon as possible after the
behavior
• Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough
• Should be certain, occurring every time the
behavior does

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 Punishment
• Not as effective as reinforcement
• Does not teach proper behavior, only
suppresses undesirable behavior
• Causes upset that can impede learning
• May give impression that inflicting pain is
acceptable

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 Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous Reinforcement
• Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
• Partial Reinforcement
• Reinforcer follows behavior only a portion of the
time
• Partial Reinforcement Schedules
• Ratio (number of behaviors) vs. Interval (time
elapsed)
• Fixed (predictable) vs. Variable (unpredictable)
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 Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed Ratio
• Based on set number of behaviors
• Variable Ratio
• Based on average (unpredictable) number of
behaviors

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 Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed Interval
• Rewarding behavior after fixed amount of time
passes
• Variable Interval
• Rewarding after variable amount of time passes

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 Operant Conditioning: Timing
• Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcement
• Waiting for delayed, but more highly valued,
reinforcers
• Immediate vs. Delayed Punishment
• Immediate more effective, but delayed can have
effect
• Immediate Reinforcement vs. Delayed
Punishment
• Immediate consequences usually win
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 Comparison

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 Applied Behavior Analysis
• Also called behavior modification
• Use of operant conditioning principles to
change human behavior
• All human behavior understood as being
influenced by rewards and punishments

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 Bandura’s Observational Learning
• Also called imitation or modeling
• Learning when behavior is observed and
imitated
• Vicarious Reinforcement & Vicarious
Punishment

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Figure 5.12 - Bandura’s Model
of Observational Learning

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Figure 5.13 - Insight Learning

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 Psychological Constraints in
Learning
• Mindset
• Describes way beliefs about ability dictate goals
• What we think we can learn  What we do learn
• Fixed Mindset
• Belief that qualities cannot change
• Growth Mindset
• Belief that qualities can change/improve through
effort

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 Strategies for Developing a
Growth Mindset
• Understand that your intelligence and thinking
skills are not fixed but can change
• Become passionate about learning and stretch
your mind in challenging situations
• Think about the growth mindsets of people
you admire
• Begin now

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