T h e S to ry o f Tu rtle Isla n d

h ttp :// w w w . tu rtle isla n d . o rg / fro n t/ a rticle 3 . h tm

1.Explain how evolutionary theory unifies biology
2.Recognize evidence of evolution
3.Discuss how evolution proceeds
4.Application of population genetics to the study of
evolution
How the evolutionary theory unifies
biology
1.1 Describe how individual variations are
produced
1.2 Discuss the action of natural selection on
individuals, populations, and species
1.3 Explain how Darwin’s observations led to
his inferences about evollution
1.4 Compare the development of theories of
evolutionary change (some examples –
Lamarck, De Vries, Weisman)
Describe how individual variations
are produced
Mutations
vPoint mutations
vNon-disjunction
Meiosis
vGenetic Recombination
vIndependent Assortment
Sexual Reproduction
vRandom/selective mating

 Action of Natural Selection on
Individuals, Populations, and
species
Does natural selection act on the individual,
population, or the species?
Natural selection is selective to the individual. For
example, if we take finches (the bird), Many birds
will be born, all with very slightly different genetic
makeup, effecting both their genotype and
phenotype. The slight changes will make the
individual bird either more effective at hunting, and
avoiding prey, or less effective. The less effective
ones die, and the more effective ones survive.
This is how it does actually effect the population
and the species too.
 Survival of the Fittest
 Charles Darwin is often credited with coining the phrase - "the
survival of the fittest" - however such attribution is not really
correct.

Darwin had tended to write about species being

engaged in a competitive Struggle for Existence. This
struggle being seen, by Darwin, as primarily a
struggle for food to support growth, life, and the
generation of young individuals to continue the
species in question.
The actual term survival of the fittest however was
actually attributed by Darwin himself to another
source:- "The expression often used by Mr. Herbert
Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate,
and is sometimes equally convenient"
Darwin was so taken with Spencer's catchy phrase that
he did, in fact, use it in a later (1869) edition of his "The
Origin of Species".

http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/quotations/darwin_survival_fittest.html



 Natural Selection
Natural selection is the process by which traits
become more or less common in a population due
to consistent effects upon the survival or
reproduction of their bearers. It is a key mechanism
of evolution.
Peppered Moth Simulation

http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/pepperedm

Do assignment: pepperedmoth_analysis

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fn

Video on Theory of evolution – 2

min
Unifying theory of Evolution
 Charles Darwin – Origin of
Species
 Origin of Species Part 1 – 9 minutes
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vfmOaAz371M
 Origin of Species Part 2 – 10 minutes
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gR5UlRTJP24&feature=

 Origin of Species Part 3 – 9.5 minutes

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHth4tg7B2M&feature=

 Origin of Species Part 4 – 10 minutes

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CF-N1xB8WLM&feature

 Origin of Species Part 5 – 9.5 minutes

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mU7jU4vRksA&feature=
Galapagos Finches
The development of theories of
evolutionary changes
 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Øis the idea that an organism can
pass on characteristics that it
acquired during its lifetime to its
offspring (also known as
heritability of acquired characteristics
or soft inheritance).

 Hugo de Vries
a Dutch botanist and one of
the first geneticists. He is
known chiefly for
suggesting the concept of
genes, rediscovering the
laws of heredity in the
1890s while unaware of
Gregor Mendel's work, for
introducing the term "
mutation", and for
developing a
mutation theory of
evolution.

Mutation Theory
Mutationism (sometimes, “Mendelism”) refers
to the theory emphasizing mutation as a
creative principle and source of discontinuity
in evolutionary change, particularly
associated with the founders of modern
genetics.

 Friedrich Leopold August
Weismann
His main contribution was
the germ plasm theory,
according to which (in a
multicellular organism)
inheritance only takes
place by means of the
germ cells—the gametes
such as egg cells and
sperm cells. Other cells
of the body—
somatic cells—do not
function as agents of
Weismann cont...
The effect is one-way: germ cells produce
somatic cells and are not affected by
anything the somatic cells learn or therefore
any ability the body acquires during its life.
Genetic information cannot pass from soma
to germ plasm and on to the next generation.
This is referred to as the Weismann barrier.[2]
This idea, if true, rules out the inheritance of
acquired characteristics as proposed by Jean-
Baptiste Lamarck.[3]

 Lamarck versus Darwin
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 Evidence of Evolution
2.1 Discuss the use of fossil record in the creation of
lines of phylogeny
2.2 Examine data from comparative anatomy and
comparative embryology
2.3 Describe instances of evolution documented in
earth history
2.4 Discuss the theory of continental drift and how
that might have contributed to the changing
variety of organisms that exist today. Where
possible consider examples.
2.5 Examine broad climatic changes during the
earth’s history (ice ages, melting of ice caps) and
consider how these changes may have contributed
to the changing organisms
2.6 Examine the effects of migration and mutations
The use of the fossil record
in the creation of
phylogeny
Phylogeny – tree of
life
 How Fossils Form
Rapid burial – before eaten or dissolved
Mud is the best thing to wash in and cover the
critter, sand will also work under most
conditions
Next – needs to be deeply buried & turned to a
rocklike substance
Bones or original matter decay, and water or
other things seep into the impression left by the
original material
Most organisms are destroyed instead of
becoming a fossil

 Comparative Anatomy
C a n yo u id e n tify th e o rg a n ism ?
Comparative Anatomy
Comparative anatomy is the
study of similarities and
differences in the anatomy of
organisms. It is closely related to
evolutionary biology and
phylogeny (the evolution of
species).
It is believed that the more
similar the anatomy of
organisms, the more closely
 Two Major Concepts of
Comparative Anatomy
Homologous structures - structures (body
parts/anatomy) which are similar in different
species because the species have
common descent. They may or may not perform
the same function. An example is the forelimb
structure shared by cats and whales.
Analogous structures - structures which are similar in
different organisms because they evolved in a
similar environment, rather than were inherited
from a recent common ancestor. They usually
serve the same or similar purposes. An example is
the torpedo body shape of porpoises and sharks. It
evolved in a water environment, but the animals
have different ancestors.
Homologous Structures
Homologous Structures
Structure that may differ in function but that
have similar anatomy, presumably because
the organisms that possess them have
descended from common ancestors. This
suggests that all animals started out from
common ancestors and, through natural
selection, were modified to perform different
functions
S o m e exa m p le s o f h o m o lo g o u s stru ctu re s
a re :
B a t, b ird , a n d p te ro d a ctylw in g s
S e a l, a n d d o lp h in flip p e rs
S h e e p a n d d o g le g b o n e s
S h re w a n d h u m a n a rm b o n e s
 Analogous structures
W h e n o rg a n ism s livin g in sim ila r e n viro n m e n ts
in d e p e n d e n tly e vo lve p h ysica lly sim ila r
stru ctu re s it is a p ro ce ss ca lle d co n v e rg e n t
e v o lu tio n . These structures or body parts are
te rm e d analogous structures. Some examples of
analogous structures are:

Wings of birds &

insects
Streamlined bodies
of seals & penguins
Fins of whales and
fish
Embryology
Embryology
a science which is about the
development of an embryo from the
fertilization of the ovum to the fetus
stage
Comparative Embryology – the
branch of embryology that compares
the development of embryos of two
or more species. The observed
similarites and differences may be
used in taxonomic and phylogenic
studies
Continental Drift
 Continental Drift & Evolution

Plate tectonics and continental drift

are “computer-age” theories
Using computers, the best fit of the
shapes of the continents was
determined, and the shapes were
moved around based on current
rates of continental movement (5 to
10 cm/yr). The results have then
been compared with existing fossils
and other geological evidence.
Placental Mammals &
Marsupials
Placental mammals – mammals which
bear live young, which are nourished
before birth in the mother’s uterus
through a specialized embryonic
organ attached to the uterus wall –
placenta


Marsupials are mammals

characterized by a distinctive pouch
in which females carry their young
through early infancy
Marsupial in Canada
Broad Climate Changes
Ice ages
 “glacial age” – generic geological period of
long-term reduction in the temperature of
the Earth’s surface and atmosphere,
resulting in the presence or expansion of
continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and
alpine glaciers.
Melting of the ice caps
 Global warming
 Increase in ocean levels  flooding
Effects of Migration & Mutations
Migration
The movement of populations,
groups, or individuals

Mutation
Changes in genomic
sequence: the DNA sequence
of a cell’s genome or the DNA
or RNA sequence of a virus
 Migration
Migration
 The movement of populations, groups, or
individuals
 Enables gene flow: the movement of genes
from one population into another
 If the two populations originally had different
gene frequencies and if selection is not
operating, migration (or, to be exact, gene
flow) alone will rapidly cause the gene
frequencies of the different populations to
converge
 If groups of individuals of the same species are
separated fore extended periods of time
(years), could result in populations that can
no longer interbreed  become
separate species
 Mutation
Caused by
Radiation
Viruses
Transposons – sequences of DNA
that can move or transpose
themselves to new positions within
the genome of a single cell
Mutagenic chemicals
Errors that occur during meiosis
Errors that occur during DNA
replication
 How Evolution Proceeds
3.1 Compare gradualism and
punctuated equilibrium
3.2 Discuss the implications of Hardy-
Weinberg principle
3.3 Describe the isolation in speciation
3.4 Identify both pre-mating and post-
mating barriers to recombination and
reproduction
3.5 Consider the speciation and
development of humans
 Gradualism versus punctuated
equilibrium
Gradualism & punctuated equilibrium are two
ways in which the evolution of a species can
occur
Scientists think that species with a shorter
evolution evolved mostly by punctuated
equilibrium, and those with a longer evolution
evolved mostly by gradualism
Gradualism is selection and variation that
happens more gradually
Punctuated equilibrium, change occurs in
spurts

Gradualism
Small variations that fit an organism slightly
better to its environment are selected for: a
few more individuals with more of the helpful
trait survive, and a few more with less of the
helpful trait die
Very gradually, over a long time, the population
changes
Change is slow, constant, and consistent

 Punctuated Equilibrium
There is a period of very little change, and
then one or a few huge changes occur, often
through mutations in the genes of a few
individuals
Because these mutations are so different and
so helpful to the survival of those that have
them, the proportion of individuals in the
population who have the mutation/trait and
those who don’t changes a lot over a very
short period of time
The species changes very rapidly over a few
generations, then settles down again to a
period of little change
Punctuated Equilibrium
Evolution combination of both
Gradualism & Punctuated
Equilibrium
Most scientists believe that
evolution is a combination of
both gradualism and
punctuated equilibrium
Fossils support both
Fossils need perfect
conditions to form so
appear more punctuated

 Hardy-Weinberg principle
States that both allele and genotype frequencies
in a population remain constant – that is, they are
in equilibrium – from generation to generation
unless specific disturbing influences are
introduced
Disturbing influences include:
 Non-random mating
 Mutations
 Selection
 Limited population size
 Overlapping generations
 Random genetic drift
 Gene flow
 Meiotic drive

 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Static allele frequencies in a
population across generations
assume:
Random mating
No mutation
No migration or emigration
Infinitely large population size
No selective pressure for or
against any traits
 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
In the simplest case of a single locus with two
alleles:
The dominant allele is denoted A
Recessive allele is denoted a
Their frequencies are denoted p and q
Freq(A) = p
Freq(a) = q
p + q = 1

If the population is in equilibrium, then we
will have
Freq(AA) = p2
Freq(aa) = q2
Punnett square for Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium
Females
A (p) a (q)
Males A (p) AA (p2) Aa (pq)
a (q) Aa (pq) aa (q2)

The final three possible genotypic frequencies

in the offspring become:
f(AA) = p2
f(Aa) = 2pq
f(aa) = q2

These frequencies are called Hardy-Weinberg

frequencies
Hardy-Weinberg Examples
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Kbruik_LOo

Go over Hardy-Weinberg Notes – word
document
Hardy-Weinberg Assignment
Bunny Lab
 Role of Isolation in speciation
A species is an actually or potentially
interbreeding population that does not
interbreed with other such populations where
there is opportunity to do so
Note: sometimes breeding make take place,
but offspring infertile –
horse + donkey = mule
tiger + lion = liger
Allopatric Speciation - formation of two or
more species often requires geographical
isolation of subpopulations of the species
Only then can natural selection or perhaps
genetic drift produce distinctive gene pools
 Pre-mating & Post-mating
barriers
Pre-mating barriers
Habitat isolation – different location or
different habitat in same location (air vs
water)
Temporal isolation – species breeds at
different times (different days, seasons,
years, etc)
Gametic isolation – sperm cannot fertilize
egg of other species
Mating behaviour – different mating patterns
to attract mate
Post-mating barriers
Hybrid breakdown – 1st generation of hybrids
are fertile, next generation feeble & sterile
Speciation & Development of
Humans
Humans are not descendents of the great apes
 have common ancestor
 Lucy
Was oldest human
ancestor skeleton
Walked earth 3.2 million
years

Ardi
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/10/09