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Minggu ke-12
 Example of a wave
• A pebble hits the water’s surface.
• The resulting circular wave moves outward from the
creation point.
• An object floating on the disturbed water will move
vertically and horizontally about its original position,
but does not undergo any net displacement.
Types of
There are two main types of waves.
Waves • Mechanical waves
• Some physical medium is being disturbed.
• The wave is the propagation of a disturbance
through a medium.
• Electromagnetic waves
• No medium required.
• Examples are light, radio waves, x-rays
 In wave motion, energy is
transferred over a distance.
General
Features of
Waves Matter is not transferred over a
distance.
 Some source of disturbance

Mechanical
A medium containing elements
Wave that can be disturbed
Requirements
Some physical mechanism through
which elements of the medium can
influence each other
Transverse Wave

A wave is a periodic disturbance traveling through a

medium.
A traveling wave or pulse that causes the elements of
the disturbed medium to move perpendicular to the
direction of propagation is called a transverse wave.
• To create the wave, you would move the end of
the string up and down repeatedly.
The particle motion is shown by the blue arrow.
The direction of propagation is shown by the red
arrow.
Longitudinal Wave

A traveling wave or pulse that causes the elements of the disturbed

medium to move parallel to the direction of propagation is called a
longitudinal wave.
• Sound waves are another example of longitudinal waves.
The displacement of the coils is parallel to the propagation.
 Complex Waves
Some waves exhibit a combination of
transverse and longitudinal waves.
Surface water waves are an example.
• The elements of water at the
surface move in nearly circular
paths.
• The disturbance has both
transverse and longitudinal
components
 P waves
“P” stands for Fastest, at 7 – 8 km
Longitudinal
primary /s

Example: S waves
Earthquake “S” stands for Slower, at 4 – 5
Transverse
Waves secondary km/s

A seismograph records the waves and allows

determination of information about the earthquake’s
place of origin.
Traveling Pulse

The shape of the pulse at t = 0 is

shown.
The shape can be represented by
some mathematical function, y (x,0) =
f (x).
• This describes the transverse
position y of the element of the
string located at each value of x
at t = 0.
Traveling Pulse, cont.

The speed of the pulse is v.

At some time, t, the pulse has traveled
a distance v t.
The shape of the pulse does not
change with time.
Its vertical position is now y = f (x –
vt).
 For a pulse traveling to the right
• y (x, t) = f (x – vt)
For a pulse traveling to the left
• y (x, t) = f (x + vt)
The function y is also called the wave function: y (x, t).
Traveling The wave function represents the y coordinate of any
element located at position x at any time t.
Pulse, final • The y coordinate is the transverse position.
If t is fixed then the wave function is called the
waveform.
• It defines a curve representing the geometric
shape of the pulse at that time.
Sinusoidal Waves

The wave represented by the

curve shown is a sinusoidal wave.
It is the same curve as sin q
plotted against q
This is the simplest example of a
periodic continuous wave.
• It can be used to build more
complex waves.
Sinusoidal Waves, cont
The wave moves toward the right.
• In the previous diagram, the brown wave represents the initial position.
• As the wave moves toward the right, it will eventually be at the position of
the blue curve.
Each element moves up and down in simple harmonic motion.
• This is the motion of the elements of the medium.
It is important to distinguish between the motion of the wave and the motion of
the elements of the medium.
 The wave is a new simplification model.

• Allows us to explore more analysis models for

solving problems.
• An ideal wave has a single frequency.
• An ideal wave is infinitely long.

Wave Model • Ideal waves can be combined to build complex

waves.

Analysis model of a traveling wave

• This model is used in situations in which a wave

moves through space without interacting with
other waves or particles.
 The crest of the wave is the
location of the maximum
displacement of the element
from its normal position.
• This distance is called
the amplitude, A.
The wavelength, l, is the
distance from one crest to the
next.
• More generally, the
wavelength is the
minimum distance
between any two
identical points on
Terminology: Amplitude and adjacent waves.

Wavelength
 The period, T , is the time interval
required for two identical points of
adjacent waves to pass by a point.
• The period of the wave is the same as the period
Terminology: of the simple harmonic oscillation of one
element of the medium.
Period and The frequency, ƒ, is the number of crests
Frequency (or any point on the wave) that pass a
given point in a unit time interval.
• The time interval is most commonly the second.
• The frequency of the wave is the same as the
frequency of the simple harmonic motion of one
element of the medium.
 When the time interval is
The frequency and the
the second, the units of
period are related.
frequency are s-1 = Hz.
• Hz is a hertz

Terminology: Period and Frequency, cont

Terminology,
Example
The wavelength, l, is 40.0 cm
The amplitude, A, is 15.0 cm
The wave function can be
written in the form y = A cos(kx
– t).
Speed of Waves
Waves travel with a specific speed.
• The speed depends on the properties of the medium being disturbed.
The wave function is given by

• This is for a wave moving to the right.

• For a wave moving to the left, replace x – vt
with x + vt.
 Wave Function,
Another Form

Since speed is distance divided

by time,
v=l/T
The wave function can then be
expressed as:
This form shows the periodic
nature of y.
• y can be used as
shorthand notation for
y(x, t).
Wave Equations
We can also define the angular wave number
(or just wave number), k.
The angular frequency can also be defined.
The wave function can be expressed as y = A
sin (k x – t).
The speed of the wave becomes v = l ƒ.
If x   at t = 0, the wave function can be
generalized to y = A sin (k x – t + f) where f is
called the phase constant.
 The primary equations in the mathematical
Wave representation of the traveling wave analysis
model are:
Equations, • ƒ=1/T
cont. • y = A sin (k x – t)
• v=ƒλ
Sinusoidal Wave
on a String
Sinusoidal Wave on a String

To create a series of pulses, the string can be attached to an

oscillating blade.
The wave consists of a series of identical waveforms.
The relationships between speed, velocity, and period hold.

Sinusoidal Wave on a String,
Each element of the string
oscillates vertically with simple
harmonic motion.
• For example, point P
Every element of the string can
be treated as a simple
harmonic oscillator vibrating
with a frequency equal to the
frequency of the oscillation of
the blade.
While each element oscillates
in the y direction, the wave
travels in the x direction with a
speed v.
At t = 0, y = A sin (k x – ω t)

2
Sinusoidal Wave on a String,
3
The transverse speed of the element is
or vy = - A cos (kx – t)
This is different than the speed of the wave
itself.
The transverse acceleration of the element is
or ay = -2A sin(kx – t)
 The maximum magnitudes of the transverse
speed and transverse acceleration are
• vy, max =  A
• ay, max = 2 A
The transverse speed and acceleration do not
Sinusoidal reach their maximum values simultaneously.
Wave on a • v is a maximum at y = 0
• a is a maximum at y = ±A
String, final The speed of the wave, v, with the transverse
velocity of a point on the string, vy.
• The speed v is constant for a uniform
medium, whereas vy varies sinusoidally.
Speed of a Wave on a
String

The speed of the wave

depends on the physical
characteristics of the string
and the tension to which the
string is subjected.
This assumes that the tension
is not affected by the pulse.
This does not assume any
particular shape for the pulse.
Reflection of a Wave,
Fixed End
When the pulse reaches the support, the pulse moves
back along the string in the opposite direction.
This is the reflection of the pulse.
The pulse is inverted.
• Due to Newton’s third law
• When the pulse reaches the fixed end
of the string, the string produces an
upward force on the support.
• The support must exert an equal-
magnitude and oppositely directed
reaction force on the string.
Reflection of a Wave,
Free End

With a free end, the string is

free to move vertically.
The pulse is reflected.
The pulse is not inverted.
The reflected pulse has the
same amplitude as the initial
pulse.
 When the boundary is intermediate between the
last two extremes.
• Part of the energy in the incident pulse is
Transmission reflected and part undergoes transmission.
of a Wave • Some energy passes through the
boundary.
Transmission of a
Wave, 2

Assume a light string is attached to a

heavier string.
The pulse travels through the light
string and reaches the boundary.
The part of the pulse that is reflected
is inverted.
The reflected pulse has a smaller
amplitude.
 Transmission of a
Wave, 3

Assume a heavier string is

attached to a light string.
Part of the pulse is reflected
and part is transmitted.
The reflected part is not
inverted.
 Conservation of energy governs the pulse

• When a pulse is broken up into reflected and transmitted

parts at a boundary, the sum of the energies of the two
pulses must equal the energy of the original pulse.

Transmission When a wave or pulse travels from medium A to

medium B and vA > vB, it is inverted upon
of a Wave, 4 reflectio.n
• B is denser than A.

When a wave or pulse travels from medium A to

medium B and vA < vB, it is not inverted upon
reflection.
• A is denser than B.
Energy in Waves in a String
 Waves transport energy when they propagate through
a medium.
We can model each element of a string as a simple
harmonic oscillator.
• The oscillation will be in the y-direction.
Energy in Every element has the same total energy.
Waves in a Each element can be considered to have a mass of dm.
The kinetic energy associated with the up and down
String motion of the element is dK = ½ (dm) vy2.
The mass dm is also equal to mdx.
The kinetic energy of an element of the string is dK =
½ (m dx) vy2.
 Integrating over all the elements, the total kinetic
energy in one wavelength is Kl = ¼m 2A 2l
The total potential energy in one wavelength is Ul
= ¼m 2A 2l
Energy, cont.
This gives a total energy of
• El = Kl + Ul = ½m 2A 2l
Power Associated with a Wave
The power is the rate at which the energy is being transferred:

The power transfer by a sinusoidal wave on a string is proportional to the

• Square of the frequency
• Square of the amplitude
• Wave speed
The rate of energy transfer in any sinusoidal wave is proportional to the
square of the angular frequency and to the square of the amplitude.
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Sound Waves
 Waves can move through
three-dimensional bulk
media.

Commonly experienced as
the mechanical waves
Sound waves are
Introduction longitudinal waves.
traveling through air that
result in the human
perception of hearing
to Sound
As the sound wave travels
Waves They travel through any
material medium.
through the air, elements of
air are disturbed from their
equilibrium positions.

The mathematical
Accompanying these
description of sinusoidal
movements are changes in
sound waves is very similar
density and pressure of the
to sinusoidal waves on a
air.
string.
 The categories cover different
frequency ranges.
Audible waves are within the
Categories sensitivity of the human ear.
of Sound
Waves Infrasonic waves have frequencies
below the audible range.
Ultrasonic waves have frequencies
above the audible range.
Speed of Sound Waves
The diagram shows the motion of a one-dimensional
longitudinal sound pulse moving through a long tube
containing a compressible gas.
The piston on the left end can be quickly moved to the
right to compress the gas and create the pulse.
Before the piston is moved, the gas has uniform density.
When the piston is suddenly moved to the right, the gas
just in front of it is compressed.
• Darker region in b
• The pressure and density in this region are higher
than before the piston was pushed.
Speed of
Sound Waves,
cont
When the piston comes to rest,
the compression region of the
gas continues to move.
• This corresponds to a
longitudinal pulse
traveling through the
tube with speed v.
Producing a Periodic Sound
Wave
A one-dimensional periodic sound wave can be produced by
causing the piston to move in simple harmonic motion.
The darker parts of the areas in the figures represent areas where
the gas is compressed and the density and pressure are above their
equilibrium values.
The compressed region is called a compression.
 When the piston is pulled back, the gas in front of
it expands and the pressure and density in this
region ball below their equilibrium values.
Producing a The low-pressure regions are called rarefactions.

Periodic They also propagate along the tube, following the

compressions.
Sound Wave, Both regions move at the speed of sound in the
medium.
cont. The distance between two successive
compressions (or rarefactions) is the wavelength.
 As the regions travel through the tube, any small
element of the medium moves with simple harmonic
motion parallel to the direction of the wave.
The harmonic position function is
s (x, t) = smax cos (kx – t)
Periodic • smax is the maximum position of the element
relative to equilibrium.
Sound Waves, • This is also called the displacement
Displacement •
amplitude of the wave.
k is the wave number.
• ω is the angular frequency of the wave.
• Note the displacement of the element is along x,
in the direction of the sound wave.
 The variation in gas pressure, DP, is also periodic.
DP = DPmax sin (kx – t)
• DPmax is the pressure amplitude.
• It is the maximum change in pressure
Periodic from the equilibrium value.
Sound Waves, • k is the wave number.
•  is the angular frequency.
Pressure The pressure can be related to the displacement.
• This relationship is given by DPmax = B smax k.
• B is the bulk modulus of the material.
 Periodic Sound
Waves, final

A sound wave may be

considered either a
displacement wave or a
pressure wave.
The pressure wave is 90o out
of phase with the
displacement wave.
• The pressure is a
maximum when the
displacement is zero,
etc.
 Speed of Sound in a
Gas

Consider an element of the gas

between the piston and the dashed
line.
Initially, this element is in equilibrium
under the influence of forces of equal
magnitude.
• There is a force from the
piston on left.
• There is another force from
the rest of the gas.
• These forces have equal
magnitudes of PA.
• P is the pressure of the
gas.
• A is the cross-sectional
area of the tube.
 Speed of Sound in a
Gas, cont.

After a time period, Δt, the

piston has moved to the right
at a constant speed vx.
The force has increased from
PA to (P+ΔP)A.
The gas to the right of the
element is undisturbed since
the sound wave has not
reached it yet.
Impulse and Momentum
The element of gas is modeled as a non-isolated system in terms of
momentum.
The force from the piston has provided an impulse to the element, which
produces a change in momentum.
The impulse is provided by the constant force due to the increased pressure:

The change in pressure can be related to the volume change and the bulk
modulus:

Therefore, the impulse is

Impulse and Momentum, cont.
The change in momentum of the element of gas of mass m is

Setting the impulse side of the equation equal to the momentum side
and simplifying, the speed of sound in a gas becomes.

• The bulk modulus of the material is B.

• The density of the material is r
Speed of Sound Waves, General
The speed of sound waves in a medium depends on the compressibility
and the density of the medium.
The compressibility can sometimes be expressed in terms of the elastic
modulus of the material.
The speed of all mechanical waves follows a general form:

For a solid rod, the speed of sound depends on Young’s modulus and
the density of the material.
Speed of Sound in Air
The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the
medium.
• This is particularly important with gases.
For air, the relationship between the speed and temperature is

• The 331 m/s is the speed at 0o C.

• TC is the air temperature in Celsius.
Relationship Between Pressure and
Displacement
The pressure amplitude and the displacement amplitude are related by
ΔPmax = B smax k
The bulk modulus is generally not as readily available as the density of
the gas.
By using the equation for the speed of sound, the relationship between
the pressure amplitude and the displacement amplitude for a sound
wave can be found.
ΔPmax = ρ v ω smax
Speed of Sound in Gases, Example Values
A Point Source
A point source will emit sound waves equally in all directions.
• This can result in a spherical wave.
This can be represented as a series of circular arcs concentric with
the source.
Each surface of constant phase is a wave front.
The radial distance between adjacent wave fronts that have the
same phase is the wavelength λ of the wave.
Radial lines pointing outward from the source, representing the
direction of propagation, are called rays.
Intensity of a Point Source
The power will be distributed equally through the area of the sphere.
The wave intensity at a distance r from the source is

This is an inverse-square law.

• The intensity decreases in proportion to the square of the distance from the
source.
 Sound Level

The range of intensities

detectible by the human ear is
very large.
It is convenient to use a
logarithmic scale to determine
the intensity level, b
Sound Level, Example
What is the sound level that corresponds to an intensity of 2.0 x 10-7
W/m2 ?
b = 10 log (2.0 x 10-7 W/m2 / 1.0 x 10-12 W/m2)
= 10 log 2.0 x 105
= 53 dB
Rule of thumb: A doubling in the loudness is approximately equivalent
to an increase of 10 dB.
Sound Levels
Loudness and Frequency
Sound level in decibels relates to a physical measurement of the strength of a
sound.
We can also describe a psychological “measurement” of the strength of a
sound.
Our bodies “calibrate” a sound by comparing it to a reference sound.
This would be the threshold of hearing.
Actually, the threshold of hearing is 10-12 W/m2 only for 1000 Hz.
There is a complex relationship between loudness and frequency.
Fig. 17.7 shows this relationship:
• The white area shows average human response to sound.
• The lower curve of the white area shows the threshold of hearing.
• The upper curve shows the threshold of pain.
 Loudness
and
Frequency,
cont.
The Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect is the apparent change in frequency (or
wavelength) that occurs because of motion of the source or
observer of a wave.
• When the relative speed of the source and observer is
higher than the speed of the wave, the frequency appears
to increase.
• When the relative speed of the source and observer is
lower than the speed of the wave, the frequency appears
to decrease.
Doppler Effect,
Observer Moving
The observer moves with a speed of vo.
Assume a point source that remains
stationary relative to the air.
It is convenient to represent the waves
as wave fronts.
• These surfaces are called wave
fronts.
• The distance between adjacent
wave fronts is the wavelength.
Doppler Effect, Observer Moving, cont
The speed of the sound is v, the frequency is ƒ, and the wavelength is l
When the observer moves toward the source, the speed of the waves
relative to the observer is v ’ = v + vo.
• The wavelength is unchanged.
The frequency heard by the observer, ƒ ’, appears higher when the observer
approaches the source.

The frequency heard by the observer, ƒ ’, appears lower when the observer
moves away from the source.
Doppler Effect,
Source Moving

Consider the source being in motion

while the observer is at rest.
As the source moves toward the
observer, the wavelength appears
shorter.
As the source moves away, the
wavelength appears longer.
Doppler Effect, Source Moving, cont
When the source is moving toward the observer, the apparent
frequency is higher.

When the source is moving away from the observer, the apparent
frequency is lower.
Doppler Effect, General
Combining the motions of the observer and the source

The signs depend on the direction of the velocity.

• A positive value is used for motion of the observer or the source toward the
other.
• A negative sign is used for motion of one away from the other.
 Convenient rule for signs.

• The word “toward” is associated with an

increase in the observed frequency.
• The words “away from” are associated with
Doppler a decrease in the observed frequency.
Effect, final The Doppler effect is common to all
waves.

The Doppler effect does not

depend on distance.
Doppler Effect,
Water Example

A point source is moving to the right .

The wave fronts are closer on the
right.
The wave fronts are farther apart on
the left.
 Sub A (source) travels at 8.00 m/s emitting at a
frequency of 1400 Hz.
Doppler The speed of sound in the water is 1533 m/s.
Effect, Sub B (observer) travels at 9.00 m/s.
Submarine What is the apparent frequency heard by the
observer as the subs approach each other? Then
Example as they recede from each other?
Doppler Effect, Submarine Example cont.
Approaching each other:

Receding from each other:

Shock Waves and Mach Number
The speed of the source can exceed the speed
of the wave.
The envelope of these wave fronts is a cone
whose apex half-angle is given by sin q = v/vS.
• This is called the Mach angle.
The ratio vs / v is referred to as the Mach
number .
The relationship between the Mach angle and
the Mach number is
Shock Wave, final
The conical wave front produced when vs > v is known as a
shock wave.
• This is a supersonic speed.
The shock wave carries a great deal of energy concentrated
on the surface of the cone.
There are correspondingly great pressure variations.
Latihan
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